Giáo trình Phương pháp giảng dạy tiếng Anh 2

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC THỦ DẦU MỘT
KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ

GIÁO TRÌNH
PHƯƠNG PHÁP GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH 2
(TEACHING ENGLISH – FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE)

TS. Nguyễn Hồng Tuấn (Chủ biên)
Th.s. Trần Thị Thanh Mai

Bình Dương, tháng 12 năm 2014


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A number of research paper, academic journals and coursebooks from famous
authors, i.e. Asher, Celce-Murcia, Chomsky, Cunningsworth, Doff, Harmer, Nunan,
etc. have been adapted for the development of Teaching English – from theory to
practice and have changed the theories into something much more pedagogical and
practical for those who are interested in how to teach English in reality – whether
directly or indirectly.
I am grateful to Dr. Ly Quyet Tien of Thu Dau Mot University for inviting me to
compose this book and to our editors for their helps in shaping the book.
I only hope that they will like the way it has turned out.

Trần Thị Thanh Mai

i


AUTHORS’ PREFACE
With the ever-increasing development of technology, the classroom teacher and the

program coordinator have been approaching a wider variety of methodological options
for learning and teaching than ever before. They can choose methods and materials
according to the learners’ needs, the teachers’ preferences and the constraints of the
school or educational setting.
To others, however, the wide variety of method options currently available confuses
rather than comforts. Methods appear to be based on very different views of what
language is and how a language is learned. Some methods recommend apparently
strange and unfamiliar classroom techniques and practices.
This book is written in response to synthesize and organize popular and practical
approaches and methods in language teaching as well as to review some useful
techniques and principles to deal with a particular teaching skill.
Teaching English – from theory to practice is designed to provide a detailed account
of major issues in language teaching, of ways of teaching English and of ways to plan
a lesson. To avoid too much reading, each part is designed into various activities
ranging from filling the blanks to jigsaw reading. Further references are also
recommended right after each session. This book is designed for prospective or novice
teachers who are not yet familiar with the basic theories, methods, and basic practices
of teaching English as a Foreign Language or for those experienced teachers needing a
further grounding in the most current, up-to-date methods and practices to be more
successful in their current teaching. The book introduces the basic skills of listening,
speaking, reading, and writing as well as issues in language teaching and lesson
planning. It also introduces the teaching of the micro-skills of pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar, and discourse.

ii


CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
AUTHORS’ PREFACE

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
ISSUES ABOUT LANGUAGE TEACHING
Chapter 1: How to choose a coursebook
1.1. Criteria to choose a coursebook
1.2. The role of coursebook in language teaching
Chapter 2: How to deal with content of language
2.1. Language form
2.2. Language function
HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH
Chapter 3: How to teach vocabulary
3.1. Methodology in teaching vocabulary
3.2. Principles of teaching vocabulary
3.3. Techniques in teaching vocabulary
3.4. Strategies in teaching vocabulary
3.5. Error correction in teaching vocabulary
3.6. Suggested activities in teaching vocabulary
3.7. Further reading
Chapter 4: How to teach pronunciation
4.1. Methodology in teaching pronunciation
4.2. Principles of teaching pronunciation
4.3. Techniques in teaching pronunciation
4.4. Strategies in teaching pronunciation
4.5. Error correction in teaching pronunciation
4.6. Suggested activities in teaching pronunciation
4.7. Further reading
Chapter 5: How to teach grammar
5.1. Methodology in teaching grammar
5.2. Principles of teaching grammar
5.3. Techniques in teaching grammar

5.4. Strategies in teaching grammar
5.5. Error correction in teaching grammar
5.6. Suggested activities in teaching grammar
5.7. Further reading
Chapter 6: How to teach listening
6.1. Methodology in teaching listening
6.2. Principles of teaching listening
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6.3. Techniques in teaching listening
6.4. Strategies in teaching listening
6.5. Error correction in teaching listening
6.6. Suggested activities in teaching listening
6.7. Further reading
Chapter 7: How to teach speaking
7.1. Methodology in teaching speaking
7.2. Principles of teaching speaking
7.3. Techniques in teaching speaking
7.4. Strategies in teaching speaking
7.5. Error correction in teaching speaking
7.6. Suggested activities in teaching speaking
7.7. Further reading
Chapter 8: How to teach reading
8.1. Methodology in teaching reading
8.2. Principles of teaching reading
8.3. Techniques in teaching reading
8.4. Strategies in teaching reading

8.5. Error correction in teaching reading
8.6. Suggested activities in teaching reading
8.7. Further reading
Chapter 9: How to teach writing
9.1. Methodology in teaching writing
9.2. Principles of teaching writing
9.3. Techniques in teaching writing
9.4. Strategies in teaching writing
9.5. Error correction in teaching writing
9.6. Suggested activities in teaching writing
9.7. Further reading
HOW TO PLAN A LESSON
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
APPENDIX 4

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INTRODUCTION
Who is the book for?
Teaching English – from theory to practice is a book designed for those who
are interested in teaching and are just about to teach mostly learners of
whatever age.
What is it about?

Teaching English – from theory to practice is about teaching English as a
foreign or second language: what it is about, and how to do it. Here is what it
contains.
 The first two chapters discuss general issues about teaching and
learning: how to choose a coursebook, how to deal with content of
language.
 Chapter 3 discusses how to teach vocabulary with various aspects, i.e.
methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested
activities and further reading.
 Chapter 4 deals with how to teach pronunciation with various aspects,
i.e. methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction,
suggested activities and further reading.
 Chapter 5 looks at how to teach grammar with various aspects, i.e.
methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested
activities and further reading
 Chapter 6 mentions how to teach listening with various aspects, i.e.
methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested
activities and further reading.
 Chapter 7 suggests ways to teach speaking with various aspects, i.e.
methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested
activities and further reading.
 Chapter 8 is about how to teach reading with various aspects, i.e.
methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction, suggested
activities and further reading.
 Chapter 9 is concerned with how to teach writing with various aspects,
i.e. methods, principles, techniques, strategy, error correction,
suggested activities and further reading.
 The last session is about how to plan a lesson.
 A list of references provides the authenticity and validity of the
contents in the book.

 The book ends with four appendices of lesson plan designed for a
whole lesson from grade 6 to 9.

v


ISSUES ABOUT LANGUAGE TEACHING

-1-


CHAPTER 1: HOW TO CHOOSE A COURSEBOOK
Aims of the chapter:
In this chapter, the learners will be provided with some criteria to choose a cousebook as well as the role of
a coursebook.
Chapter 1 includes two main parts:
+ Part 1.1. Criteria to choose a coursebook. This part consists of five activities presenting various criteria to
choose a coursebook.
+ Part 1.2. The role of coursebook in language teaching. Two activities will be included in this part to deal
with the role of coursebook in language teaching.

1.1. Criteria to choose a coursebook
Choosing a coursebook is a daunting, sometimes overwhelming prospect for both
program administrators and teachers. Nevertheless, it is a prospect that must be
respected as it has significant impact on the ability of students to meet their language
learning objectives, and affects both the process of how they learn and the outcomes.
Many researchers have compiled checklists and guidelines for choosing appropriate
course books for different students. Some are more detailed and some are less so, but
all deal with more or less the same issues. It is very important to know what to look for
when choosing a book.

Before choosing a course book for the students in any course, it is important to
create a needs-analysis for your own students. What will the students need to know by
the end of the course or school year? Once the needs-analysis is done, it's a good idea
to create a list of items that you consider desirable in a course book. Based on these
lists, any course book can then be analyzed.
Below are a few basic questions (to help get you started) that should be asked when
we are in the process of choosing a course book for our classes and our students.
Initial Questions
 Do the principles stated in the introduction or teacher's guide reflect my own principles?
 Is the teacher's guide comprehensive and does it offer many extra ideas?
 Does the book follow the rationale of the current English curriculum?
o
How do I know this?
o
Where can I check it?
 Are the topics covered in the book appropriate for my students?
 Is the material appropriate for my students?
 Are there enough reading passages and tasks in the book? Are they varied?
 Are there enough listening comprehension tasks in the book? Are they varied?
 Are there enough writing tasks in the book? Are they varied?
 Is grammar presented, taught and practiced in the book? Is there enough practice of grammar
in the book?
 Are there performance-based tasks in the book? Are these varied and include both oral
presentations and written ones?
 Is the language authentic?
 Is the book appealing to me? Do I think the students will also find it appealing?
 Is the font size or style appropriate for the age group of my students?
 Do I think I would enjoy using this book?

2

Checklist for choosing a coursebook
Use the checklist below to grade each book you inspect. This will help you to judge
all the books by the same criteria. It will also help you to see what you may need to
add, substitute, adapt or ignore in the coursebook.
What does the book offer the teacher?
1. Do the book’s priorities match with your priorities?
2. Does the book seem to do what it claims to do?
3. Is it clear how to use the book?
4. Is the book clearly sequenced and structured?
5. Does it provide integrated revision of key items?
6. Are there any useful, additional materials?
7. Does it offer lots of practical ideas?
8. How does the book develop a balance of all 4 skills? Does this meet your needs?
9. Does it provide plenty of varied practice of any one set of language items?
10. Does it help you to set tests?
11. Does the book manage to avoid sexual, racial and cultural stereotypes?
What does the book offer the students?
12. Does the book look interesting and fun?
13. Can the students easily see what they have to do?
14. Does the book provide much for them to do independently?
15. Does it give them activities and tasks which are interesting and worthwhile in
themselves not just language exercises?
16. Does it provide plenty for those children who cannot read and write with
confidence?

1

2

3

4

5

When completing the questions from the table, teachers should then follow this 4stage procedure.
Step 1: Analysis. The teacher can look through the various books to analyze each
for answer to the questions on the next page. It helps to have a chart to write down the
answers for this so that the information is clearly displayed.
Step 2: Piloting. By far the best way to find a book’s strengths and weaknesses is
to try it out with a class, seeing which lessons work and which don’t work. The
teachers are teaching more than one group at the same level, they may choose to teach
two different books to compare them.
Step 3: Consultation. Before choosing a book, teachers should try and find out
any of their colleagues have used the book before and how well they succeed with it.
Through discussion, they can get an idea about whether or no book is likely to be right
for them.
Step 4: Gathering opinions. Anyone who might have an opinion on the textbook
is worth speaking to, from the publisher and bookshop owners, to colleagues and
friends. It is also a good idea to let students look through the book to see how they
react to a first sight of it. They they express a preference with what you agree with,
they are likely to be more committed to the textbook.

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 Practice
Read carefully the following Areas to consider a coursebook and compare these

kinds of coursebook: New American Streamline - Connections (Bernard Harley &
Peter Viney); Face 2 Face – Pre-intermediate (Chris Redston & Gillie Cunningham);
American Headway 2 (Joan & Liz Soars) and Upstream– pre-intermediate (Virginia
Evans & Jenny Dooley) based on mentioned nine areas to consider a coursebook.
Areas to consider a coursebook
Area
Price

Available

Layout
design

and

Methodology
Skills

Syllabus

Topic

Stereotyping

Teacher’s
guide

Questions to consider
How expensive is the textbook? Can the students afford it? Will they have to buy an
accompanying workbook? Can they afford both? What about the teacher? Can he or she pay for

the teacher’s book and tapes?
Is the coursebook available? Are all its components (students’ book, teacher’s book, workbook,
etc.) in the shops now? What about the next level (for the next term/semester)? Has it boon
published? Is it available? What about tapes, videos, etc.?
Is the book attractive? Does the teacher feel comfortable with it? Do the students like it? How
user-friendly is the design? Does it get in the way of what the book is trying to do or does it
enhance it?
What kind of teaching and learning does the book promote? Can teachers and students build
appropriate ESA sequences from it? Is there a good balance between Study and Activation?
Does the book cover the four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) adequately? Is
there a decent balance between the skills? Are there opportunities for both Study and Activation
in the skills work? Is the language of the reading and listening texts appropriate? Are the
speaking and writing tasks likely to Engage the students’ interest?
Is the syllabus of the book appropriate for your students? Does it cover the language points you
would expect? Are they in the right order? Do the reading and listening texts increase in
difficulty as the book progresses?
Does the book contain a variety of topics? Are they likely to engage the students’ interest? Does
the teacher respond to them well? Are they culturally appropriate for the students? Are they too
adult or too childish?
Does the book represent people and situations in a fair and equal way? Are various categories
of people treated equally? Is there stereotyping of certain nationalities? Does the book display
conscious or unconscious racism or sexism?
Is there a good teacher’s guide? Is it easy to use? Does it have all the answers the teacher might
need? Does it offer alternatives to lesson procedures? Does it contain a statement of intention
which the teacher and students feel happy with?

4


5

1.2. The role of coursebook in language teaching
Together with the impact of new technologies, there is no doubt that textbooks
remain essential in language teaching and serve as ''a framework'' for both teachers and
learners. In fact, the role of the textbook in the language classroom is a difficult one to
define perfectly and exactly.
Apart from the fact that teachers are required using materials by program
administrators, it is beneficial to make use of materials in language teaching. In other
words, materials play a crucial role in teaching and learning situation. A textbook is a
cheap way of providing learning materials in terms of ready-made teaching texts and
learning tasks.
Also, materials, as Allright (1981) suggests, are only part of the co-operative
management of language learning. Allright also adds a further dimension to the role of
the textbook by characterizing the lesson as an interaction between the three elements
of teachers, learners and materials. In his opinions, this interaction enhances the
opportunities to learn.

Figure 1.2: A model of the lesson (adapted from Allwright 1981)
Allwright (1990) argues that materials should teach students to learn, that they
should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they
6


should give teachers rationales for what they do. From his point of view, textbooks are
too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material.
Similarly, Cunningsworth (1995) considers the coursebook a useful factor in
teaching and learning as it can serve as a syllabus for teaching and a guide for students'
self-study. According to him, textbooks play a prominent role in the teaching/learning
process and they are the primary agents of conveying the knowledge to learners. One

more thing, textbooks' function is to make knowledge available and apparent to its
learners in a selected, easy and organized way. Also, the role of coursebooks in
language teaching can be categorized as follows
i. a source for presentation materials,
ii. a source of activities for learner practice and communicative interaction,
iii. reference source for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and so on,
iv. a source of stimulation and ideas for classroom language activities,
v. a syllabus reflecting determined learning objectives,
vi. a resource for self-directed learning or self-access work and
vii. a support for less experienced teachers.

The author also emphasized that coursebooks can serve as a resource in achieving
aims and objectives set in advance in terms of learner needs.
Hutchinson (1994) and Richards (2001) state that textbooks are a key component in
most language teaching situations because learners consider textbooks the backbones
of language input, with a balance of skills taught and of language practice while
teachers, especially inexperienced ones, may find textbooks a form of guidance to plan
and teach lessons.
Mention to this issue, Betsy Parrish (2004, p.227) describes benefits of using a
textbook:
It assures a measure of structure, consistency, and logical progression in a class.
It minimizes preparation time for teachers.
It allows learners to review material or preview other lessons.
It meets a learner’s needs or expectations of having something concrete to work from
and take home for further study.
It provides novice teachers with guidance in course and activity design.
It may provide multiple resources such as tapes, CDs, videos, self-study workbooks,
etc.

As a matter of fact, textbooks alone cannot provide students with all the knowledge

they require, but they are a major tool in helping learners to make progress.
Theoretically, experienced teachers can teach English without a textbook. However, it
is not easy to do it all the time, though they may do it sometimes. Many teachers do
not have enough time to make supplementary materials, so they just follow the
textbook. Textbooks therefore take on a very important role in language classes, and it
is important to select a good textbook.

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CHAPTER 2: HOW TO DEAL WITH CONTENT OF LANGUAGE
Aims of this chapter
This chapter clarifies the differences between language form and language content. It includes two main
parts
Part 2.1. Language form. This part gives a short summary about language form, i.e. morphology, syntax and
phonology.
Part 2.2. Language function. This part deals with three main functions of a language, i.e. performatory,
expressive, informative.

Language content refers to the topics and ideas that are encoded in linguistic
messages. We all talk about the same things: objects, relationships between objects,
and relationships between events. Content is, therefore, general and independent of
any particular context. In contrast, topic is variable and changes with age, as well as
culture. Language content is akin to semantics. Bloom and Lahey (1978) divide
language into three separate but overlapping components:
 Content
 Form
 Use
The overlap of these in the centre of the diagram below represents knowledge of
language and a successful integration of content, form and use to understand and

transmit messages.

Figure 2.1. The Integration of Content, Form and Use
2.1. Language form
Language form refers to the surface features of language and how these are
arranged according to the grammar of the language. As a means of connecting sound
with meaning, it incorporates morphology, syntax and phonology.
In general, form refers to the shape and structure of something. It can also mean the
organization, placement and relationship between things. As such, language form
refers to the so-called surface features of language and how these are arranged. The
rules that govern how particular language features are arranged are the grammar of the
language. Language form can be divided into at least two categories (Lahey, 1988):
8


Morphology
- Morphology examines how words are formed in any
particular language. It focuses especially on their
internal structure and how their meaning can be
altered through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.
- A morpheme is the smallest element in a language
capable of creating a distinction in meaning, as such it
is central to an understanding of morphology.

Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules that govern how words
combine to create meaningful utterances. Morphemes
combine to form words, words combine into phrases
and phrases combine according to set rules into
clauses.

Now, in spoken language we are additionally concerned with the ways in which
sound is connected to meaning. This, therefore, introduces a third category:
Phonology
Phonology is the study of the categorization of the speech sounds of a particular
language and the rule system that governs how they are used to produce meaningful
words. It describes the basic unit of speech in any language as the phoneme and
examines how speech sounds change when they are combined.
In addition, phonology examines other surface features of speech such as
intonation, stress and pausing. There are also counterparts of these features in signed
language, where the range and speed of movements (hand, arm, body, face) and hand
configurations and emphasis, stress, pausing, and so on.
2.2. Language function
What are language functions?
A lot of what we say is for a specific purpose. Whether we are apologizing,
expressing a wish or asking permission, we use language in order to fulfill that
purpose. Each purpose can be known as a language function.
Savignon describes a language function as “the use to which language is put, the
purpose of an utterance rather than the particular grammatical form an utterance takes”
(Savignon, 1983). By using this idea to structure teaching, the instructional focus
becomes less about form and more about the meaning of an utterance. In this way,
students use the language in order to fulfill a specific purpose, therefore making their
speech more meaningful. There are at least three different basic functions of language:
a. Informative – words can be used to pass on information
+ The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the
statement of a fact.
+ This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g. whether a state
of affairs has occurred or not or what might have led to it).
+ These sentences have a truth value; that is, the sentences are either true or false
(recognizing, of course, that we might not know what that truth value is). Hence, they

are important for logic.
b. Expressive – words can be used to evoke an emotion that is not a direct result of
their meaning
+ Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of,
ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.
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+ Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings
and (2) expressing feelings.
+ Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true nor false.
c. Performative – words can be as a kind of symbol / action in and of themselves
+ The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests.
+ Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although various
logics of commands have been developed).
+ Example of this function: "Close the windows." The sentence "You're smoking
in a nonsmoking area," although declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in
this area."
What are some examples of functions of language?
Language functions in many different ways. Its most familiar function is
informative, i.e. it transmits information. But it also operates expressively, when we
attend to the feelings evoked by the words rather than just their meaning. Poetry often
combines the informative and the expressive:
“The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew
The furrow followed free
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.”
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”
“When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw,
The line, too, labors, and the words move slow;

Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain,
Flies o’er th’ unbending corn, and skims along the main.”
Alexander Pope, “Essay on Criticism”
“I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;
I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three.”
Robert Browning, “How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix”

In these verses the rhythm and sound of the words are expressive in themselves.
Language is also used expressively in prayer; and when a man whispers “sweet
nothings” into his wife’s ear, or tells her she looks “scrumptious”; and in such sounds
as “wow!” and “scram!”; and when a politician or preacher or salesman uses words to
evoke emotional responses.
A third area of language is the ceremonial. Here the words are not necessarily
either informative or expressive, but performative, they are an action in themselves.
Examples are “I thank you, apologize, warn, greet, guarantee, promise, welcome,” etc.
These words are complete speech acts. They do not describe the acts of thanking,
apologizing, warning, etc., but instead are those very acts. They are not propositions
which can be true or false. If a man says, “I bid you good morning,” that does it (even
though he may hate you). In its performative sense, language is like any other gesture
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or symbol: the handshake, the military salute or the gestures of the baseball umpire.
Austin estimates that there are over a thousand performative verbs in English.
Language also functions to tell a story, to declaim, to hypnotize, to play a part, to
imagine, to soothe, to ask, to deceive, to demonstrate one’s feelings, and in endless
other ways.
If we think about a function of language as one that serves a purpose we can see
that much of what we see can be considered to be functional. Let's take the example of
going to a dinner party. Arriving at the dinner party we may introduce ourselves, thank

the host and ask where to put our coats. During the dinner we may congratulate
someone on a recent accomplishment, ask advice, express affection and compliment
the host on the meal. Each of these individual utterances are considered functions of
language.
How can we teach functions of language?
Krashen and Terrell (1983) suggest that basic communication goals can be
expressed in terms of situations, functions and topics. It is up to the teacher to plan the
situations within which students will be able to use their language for a purpose in the
classroom context. For instance, if the topic being learned is family and relatives then
the situation may be introductions or visiting relatives. By creating a situation the
teacher is providing the necessary context students need to use the language for a
function.
In addition to creating situations, teachers must also be prepared to explain that
there may be a large number of possible ways to fulfill each function of language. For
instance greeting an elderly lady on the street would differ from greeting a peer in their
home. Choosing the appropriate way in which to say something will partly depend on:
1. Your social standing relative to the person you are talking to;
2. How well you know the person;
3. Who is listening; and
4. The circumstances under which the communication occurs.

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HOW TO TEACH ENGLISH

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CHAPTER 3: HOW TO TEACH VOCABULARY

Aims of the chapter
After dealing with chapter 3, learners will acquire some basic knowledge about
+ methodology in teaching vocabulary,
+ principles of teaching vocabulary,
+ techniques in teaching vocabulary,
+ strategies in teaching vocabulary.
Also, learners can have some experience in error correction in teaching vocabulary as well as be
recommended some suggested activities in teaching vocabulary.
Part 3.1. Methodology in teaching vocabulary provides learners with direct and indirect vocabulary teaching
as well as four different approaches to teaching vocabulary
Part 3.2. Principles of teaching vocabulary deals with some basic principles in teaching vocabulary
Part 3.3. Techniques in teaching vocabulary presents three stages in teaching vocabulary as well as some
popular techniques which are very useful for teachers
Part 3.4. Strategies in teaching vocabulary mentions to explicit and implicit instructions in teaching
vocabulary
Part 3.5. Error correction in teaching vocabulary discusses how to correct errors in teaching language,
especially vocabulary.
Part 3.6. Suggested activities in teaching vocabulary recommend some useful activities to teach vocabulary.
Last but not least, a number of references are presented for learners to explore more aspects of teaching
vocabulary.

What is Vocabulary?
According to Morris (1984) vocabulary refers to every word in a language that is
used for making understanding especially between persons. Vocabulary is the list of
words or phrases of a particular language along with their meanings. Richard (1985)
defines vocabulary as every word of a language such as single words, compound
words, and the idioms of the language.
How many words are needed for effective communication in L2?
Level
High-frequency words

Number of Words
2,000

Text Coverage %
87

Academic vocabulary

800

8

Technical vocabulary

2,000

3

Total to be learned

4,800

98

Low-frequency words

123,200

2

Total

128,000

100

Adapted from Nation and Newton, 1997, p.239
3.1. Methodology in teaching vocabulary
In the past, teachers used to select and present vocabulary from concrete to abstract.
Words like ‘door’, ‘window’, ‘desk’, etc. which are concrete, used to be taught at
beginning levels. However, words like ‘honesty’, ‘beauty’, etc., which are abstract
words, used to be taught at advanced levels because they are not “physically
represented” in the learning/teaching environment and are very difficult to explain.
Nowadays, methodologists and linguists suggest that teachers can decide and select the
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words to be taught on the basis of how frequently they are used by speakers of the
language. That is, the most commonly used words should be taught first.
3.1.1. Direct vocabulary teaching
Direct vocabulary instruction involves 6 explicit steps which, when conducted
consistently and over time, improves students' academic vocabulary knowledge. The
six steps of direct vocabulary instruction, in brief, are:
+ Teacher provided description, explanation or example
+ Students restate in own words
+ Students construct non-linguistic representation
+ Participate in variety of activities
+ Student discussion
+ Games

In direct vocabulary instruction, learners do many specific exercises and activities
that focus their attention directly on certain words in lists, learning word parts, and
vocabulary games. These techniques will benefit all learners, but have been shown to
especially benefit learners with limited personal experience with words as well as
limited knowledge of words (Vacca,Vacca and Gove, 2000; Omanson et al., 1984;
Jenkins, Stein, and Wysocki, 1984; McKeown et al., 1983; Kameenui, Carnine, and
Freschi, 1982).
Direct vocabulary instruction is commonly done once prior to a reading and
reviewed or assessed after the reading. Stahl suggests providing contextual
information while addressing definitional information. Practice throughout the week
with new vocabulary has historically revolved around writing definitions and
sentences. Research, however, shows that in order to "learn" a word, it must be
revisited approximately 8 to 10 times. Additionally, word learning is most effective
when done in meaningful contexts. Owning a word is not getting a word right on a
vocabulary quiz; owning a word is using it correctly in conversation and writing. Each
activity listed below can be modified and used in an oral format for use with younger
students.
+ Concept Maps
+ Word Cards
+ Four Square Vocabulary
+ Concept Sorting
+ List-Group-Label
Teaching a word directly first involves providing definitional and contextual
information. Stahl suggests various ways you can provide definitional information:
+ teaching synonyms and antonyms (requiring your students to consider the
critical features of words);
+ rewriting definitions (allowing students to show their understanding of a
word);

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+ providing examples and non-examples (another way of requiring your
students to consider the critical features of words);
+ discussing the differences between the target word and related words
(concentrating on the meaning of the word).
Contextual information can be provided for your students through various methods:
+ providing opportunities for students to write sentences using target words;
+ discussing the meaning of the same word in various sentences (demonstrating
the meaning of the word in multiple contexts);
+ constructing a scenario (providing a richer context than a single sentence);
and creating silly questions using a pair of target words (demonstrating understanding
of word meanings and their relationships).
Concept maps
A concept map can provide you with multiple ways to address both definitional
and contextual information during vocabulary instruction. Concept maps provide a
visual organization of information about a word including classification,
examples/non-examples, and description. Concept maps allow teachers to directly
teach vocabulary while providing a context for the new word.
What is this?
Cold-blooded animal with moist skin
Example
Frogs
Toads
Salamanders

Non-examples
Horses
Alligators
Birds

Amphibian

What is it like?
Moist skin
Cold-blooded
Lives on land
Lays eggs in water

Word Cards
Word Cards provide students with the opportunity to have collections of studied
words that can be reviewed routinely. Stahl and Kapinus suggest that a word card
should include the word, its definition, any relevant contextual information (such as a
sentence), and a personal clue to help remember the word (see figure below).
WORD
Definitional
Information

Contextual
information
Personal
clue

A sample Word Card for the word repeal may look like this:

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REPEAL
The senate decided to repeal

skateboarding in the park.

To withdraw or take back officially

The city repealed its decision to hold a parade.

After students have a collection of word cards, they can engage in various activities
to practice. Word cards can be sorted by parts of speech (i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives,
or adverbs) or by semantic categories. The students could also sort words without
specified categories and then explain the basis for their categories. Pairs of words can
be used to make up sentences. Students can also find words that have certain
connotations such as good and bad, desirable and undesirable, etc.
Four-Square Vocabulary
Another activity suggested by Stahl and Kapinus is Four Square Vocabulary
Squares. This activity is a type of concept mapping which uses explanations, examples,
non-examples, and definition generation (providing both definitional and contextual
information). The following describes an adaptation to this activity. To set up the "4squares," have students fold a sheet of paper into quadrants and in the upper left box,
dictate the word that is being taught, for example, passive.
You then describe the word (e.g., "when someone is passive, they are not active").
When describing the word, provide a contextual example. For example, you could say
"Last night, I was passive when I was watching TV because I was sitting on the couch
without being active." Generate examples of that concept along with your students.
For passive, students might provide "napping," "spacing out," "daydreaming." After
discussing, have students write four or five examples in the top right box.
Next, have students provide non-examples of the concept. For passive, students
should offer activities that are not passive (e.g., "dancing," "playing sports," "playing
music"). Have students write four or five non-examples in the lower right box after
you have discussed non-examples as a group.
After you have described the word and examples and non-examples have been
discussed, have your students write a definition of the concept in the lower left box.

These definitions should be written in their own words and can then be shared with the
class.

Passive

When you are not
doing much.

Napping Watching
TV "Spacing Out"
Daydreaming
Dancing
Playing Soccer
Playing Piano
Asking Questions

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Concept Sorting
When introducing a new unit, one manner to amass information is to sort the words
into main categories (an activity outlined by Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and
Johnston). Categorization allows your students the opportunities to solidify their
knowledge of word meanings through comparisons. We continually categorize by
finding order and similarities among new information to help us make sense of the
world.
Before beginning a unit/chapter, select important concept words. Together with
your students, review the list of words and come to a consensus by dividing the list
into categories. Through this process, your students will be comparing, contrasting,
and analyzing already known concepts while expanding their knowledge of unknown

concepts. This exercise allows you to assess and build background knowledge. While
the students are reading and come across a sorted word, they can move it to another
column if it is not correct. If it is correct, they may highlight the word. The sort is then
revisited after the reading for further discussion.
Medieval Times
People

Place

Things

Monarch

Mint

Armor

Knight

Court

Longbows

Page

Kingdom

Jewels

List-Group-Label

The List-Group-Label activity (an activity described by Tierney and Readence)
introduces and reviews new vocabulary on a specific topic through the process of
categorization. This activity is a form of semantic webbing, without requiring a
graphic organizer. Students must have a working knowledge of the concepts in order
to be successful with this activity. The purpose of the activity is to solidify meanings
of words and concept knowledge.
To begin, you would select one or two target words as a stimulus and write the
words on the board or chart paper (i.e., volcano). You and your students proceed while
brainstorming a list of related words (i.e., lava, fire, Pompeii, erupt). For the next stage,
you orally read the list of brainstormed words, pointing to each word. Using only the
list from the board, partners group related words together and title each list to indicate
the shared relationship between the words (not unlike a concept sort). Your students
should then share their grouping strategies with the class, verbally stating why the
words have been categorized in the particular manner (i.e., lava, ash, rocks, dust,
smoke are all things emitted from a volcano).
3.1.2. Indirect vocabulary teaching
Students, especially young learners need indirect vocabulary instruction so that
they can learn strategies for figuring out the meanings of unfamiliar words that they
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encounter while reading. This section describes instructional techniques that can help
you in indirect vocabulary instruction
+ Analyzing Word Parts
+ Word Tree
+ Dictionaries
+Word Wizard
+ Access to Stories
Analyzing word parts
Students need to understand the uses and meanings of prefixes and suffixes in

order to pronounce unfamiliar words, figure out meanings, and use suffixes to
determine parts of speech. Deconstructing word parts can make a word more
memorable and can help determine meanings of words when used in combination with
contextual information.
To assist your students in the use of word parts you must directly teach the most
commonly used word parts and a strategy for deconstructing words. Before beginning
word-part instruction, you should introduce your students to prefixes, suffixes, and
roots. Students need not be concerned with learning specific terms; understanding how
various word parts function together to influence word meanings is the goal.
When introducing the concept of prefixes and/or suffixes, begin by displaying
common morphemes on a chart (e.g., in-, dis-, re-, -ly, and -tion) and common base
words (e.g., credible, connect, and equal). By combining prefixes and suffixes and one
or two base words to create new words (e.g., reconnect). Then involve students in
building words using the remaining base words (e.g., disconnect, disconnection,
equally, inequality). Using a think-aloud model, teach how to explain the meaning of
each word using your knowledge of prefixes and suffixes.
For example, explaining the word disconnection might go like this, "The prefix dismeans the opposite of; connect means joined together or related, and -tion is a suffix
that indicates a noun. So, I can figure out that disconnection means not
related or joined." Finally, discuss how suffixes can help you identify a word's part of
speech. This discussion can be revisited throughout the year with different morphemes
and base words.
Word Trees
In Teaching Vocabulary, Tomkins and Blanchfield suggest an activity that
provides a visual display of word analysis. They suggest that you divide your class
into groups with each group assigned a root to study. Each group brainstorms words
derived from the root by consulting a dictionary and joining suffixes and prefixes to
find new words. The groups then write their found words along with brief definitions
for each using the meaning of the root in your definitions. Then they draw an outline
of a tree and write the root at the base of the tree and each new word and its definition
on individual branches. Look at the following example.

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Dictionaries
Looking words up in dictionaries and recording their definitions have not proven to
be effective ways to address vocabulary instruction. However, we should not therefore
discount using dictionaries. Have your students look words up after they encounter
them in context rather than before. Dictionary definitions are often hard for children to
understand. Help your students understand the elements of dictionary entries.
Additionally, have your students rewrite definitions in their own words.
Word Wizard
The goal of Word Wizard is to get your students to notice words they encounter
and be sensitive to the words learned during vocabulary instruction. The Word Wizard
is a large graphic of a wizard (or chart) that is hung in your classroom. You assign
vocabulary words to students (words already covered during your vocabulary
instruction), and the students are then on the pursuit of hearing or reading the word in
context. As they come across their target words, the student or the teacher writes the
word and its context down and posts it on the chart or wizard. A variation is to add
words to the wizard or chart as you discuss them in class. As your students encounter
the words again, they note the context and put it on the wizard or chart. After a period
of two weeks or so, you and your students determine the student who found the most
words. That student is then declared the "Word Wizard" for the class.
Access to Stories
Perhaps the easiest and most important thing
you can do to enhance vocabulary development
is to provide opportunities for your students to
enjoy wide reading. Researchers assert that
children in third grade and beyond build their
vocabulary through wide reading rather than

through oral language. Having individualized
sets of books easily available to your students
will help maximize their time. Additionally, you
can give your students access to stories by
reading aloud. Not only has research shown that children can learn new vocabulary as
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