[For Sts]Official Ngon Ngu Hoc Doi Chieu - Pdf.pdf

Tài liệu hướng dẫn học tập
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NGÔN NGỮ HỌC
ĐỐI CHIẾU
(Lưu hành nội bộ - Internal use only)

LINGUISTIC
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
Edited, supplemented, corrected contents and vocabulary explained
by M.A Trần Mạnh Trung in 2023
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(Biên tập, bổ sung, sửa lỗi nội dung và chú giải từ vựng
bởi Th.S Trần Mạnh Trung năm 2023)

1


PART 01 : BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
(Phần 01 : KIẾN THỨC NỀN)

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A. COMMON CONCEPTS
(CÁC KHÁI NIỆM CHUNG)

1. Contrastive Analysis (C.A): Definition and the Aims of the Discipline
(Phân tích đối chiếu : Định nghĩa và mục tiêu môn học)
a. Definition: C.A is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example
the sound system or the grammatical system.

C.A was developed and practised in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural
Linguistics to language teaching.
b. Aims: C.A is based on the following assumptions:
a. the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the
first language.
b. these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.
c. teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of
interference.
Contrastive Analysis was more successful in Phonology than in other areas of language,
and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning
difficulties.
In recent years Contrastive Analysis has been applied to other areas of language, for
example the discourse systems. This is called Contrastive Discourse Analysis.
Vocabulary:
1. Contrastive Analysis: Phân tích đối chiếu
2. assumption: giả thiết, giả định
3. interference: sự can thiệp
4. Phonology: Âm vị học
5. incline: làm cho suy giảm
6. Discourse: Diễn ngôn
7. the first language (L1): ngôn ngữ thứ nhất / tiếng mẹ đẻ

2. Typology (Phân loại học)
Typology is the classification of languages into types. For example, languages may be
classified according to whether or not they are tone languages or according to their most
typical syntactic structures, e.g. whether they are SVO languages (Subject – Verb- Object
languages) like English or SOV languages (Subject – Object – Verb - languages) like
Japanese.

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Vocabulary:
1. classification: sự phân loại
2. tone language: ngôn ngữ thanh điệu (a language in which variations in pitch distinguish different words.)

Notes: A tone language, or tonal language, is a language in which words can differ in tones (like pitches
in music) in addition to consonants and vowels.
Many languages, including Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Lao, Hmong, are tonal.[1] Other languages,
including Indo-European languages such as English and Hindi, are not considered tone languages. They
can use Intonation (linguistics) in different ways.

3. Behaviorism (Chủ nghĩa Hành vi)
A theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can and should
be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of
learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior
of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement.
Behaviorism was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first
language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar
and many others.
Vocabulary:
1. theory: lý thuyết
2. external event
3. stimulus: kích thích
4. response: phản xạ
5. reinforcement: sự củng cố
6. reject: từ chối
7. adherent: người tuân thủ
8. generative grammar: ngữ pháp tạo sinh

4. Bilingualism (Đa ngôn ngữ)
Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group
of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. The use of two languages
by an individual is known as individual bilingualism, and the knowledge of two languages by
members of a whole community or the presence of two languages within a society is called
societal bilingualism. When two communicative functions in different social domains it is
known as diglossia.
Vocabulary:
1. inhabitant: cư dân
2. societal: thuộc xã hội
3. domain: lãnh địa, lãnh thổ
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4. diglossia: sự pha trộn ngôn ngữ (a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same
language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same speakers .)

5. Variable (Biến thể)
A linguistic item has various forms (variants). The different forms of the variable may
be related to differences in style or to differences in the socio – economic background,
education, age, or sex of the speakers.
There are variables in the phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of a language.
Examples in English include:
1, the ‘ng’ variable as in ‘coming’, ‘working’, in careful formal speech it often occurs
as /iŋ/, e.g. /kʌmiŋ/ coming, /wə:kiŋ/ working, but in informal or regional speech it often
occurs as /kʌmn/ com’n, /wə:kn/ work’n.
2, the marker on verb forms for 3rd-person singular present tense (as in He works here),
which is a variable because in some non-standard and some new varieties of English a variant
without the ending (as in He work here) may occur.
Linguistic rules which try to account for these variables in language are referred to as

variable rules.
Vocabulary:
1. socio – economic background: bối cảnh kinh tế-xã hội
2. formal speech: lời nói trang trọng
3. informal: khơng trang trọng
4. regional: theo vùng, miền
5. non-standard: không theo chuẩn mực
7. rule: quy tắc, nguyên tắc
8. account for: giải thích cho

6. Usage (Cách sử dụng)
A distinction made by Widdowson between the function of a linguistic item as an
element in a linguistic system (usage) and its function as part of a system of communication
(use).
For example, the progressive aspect may be studied as an item of grammar or usage (i
e. to consider how it compares with other aspects and tenses in English and the constructions
in which it occurs) and in terms of its use (i.e how it is used in discourse for performing such
communicative acts as descriptions, plans, commentaries. etc.)
The meaning a linguistic item has as an example of usage is called its signification, and
the meaning it has as an example of use is called its value.
Vocabulary:
1. usage: (trong hệ thống ngôn ngữ) cách dùng thơng thường, tập qn, thói quen
2. use: cách dùng (trong giao tiếp)
3. progressive: tiến triển
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4. aspect: thể thức, hiện trạng
5. commentary: chú thích, bình luận

7. Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp tạo sinh)
Generative Grammar is a type of grammar that attempts to define and describe by a set
of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences of a language and no ungrammatical ones.
This type of grammar is said to generate, or produce, grammatical sentences.
In other words, Generative Grammar is a type of grammar which describes a language
in terms of a set of logical rules formulated so as to be capable of generating the infinite
number of possible sentences of that language and providing them with the correct structural
description.
Vocabulary:
1. generate: phát sinh, phát ra
2. define: định nghĩa, định rõ
3. principle: nguyên tắc
4. infinite: không xác định
5. formulated (adj.) theo công thức

8. Transformational-Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp cải biến tạo sinh)
Transformational-Generative Grammar is an early version of the Generative Theory
that emphasized the relationships among sentences that can be seen as transforms or
transformations of each other, for example the relationships among simple active declarative
sentences (e.g. He went to the store), negative sentences (He didn’t go to the store), and
questions (Did he go to the store?).
Such relationships can be accounted for by transformational rules. The Standard Theory
component that produces or generates basic syntactic structures called deep structures; a
transformational component that changes or transforms those basic structures into sentences
called surface structures; a phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic
representation so that they can be pronounced; and a semantic component, which deals with
the meaning of sentences.
Vocabulary:
1. transform: biến đổi, biến hóa
2. account for: giải thích cho

3. representation: sự diễn tả, sự đại diện

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9. Case Grammar (Ngữ pháp cấu trúc)
Case Grammar is an approach to grammar developed in the 1970s which stresses the
semantic relationships in a sentence. Parts of case grammar have been incorporated into more
recent versions of Generative Grammar.
(Case grammar là một cách tiếp cận và phân tích ngơn ngữ. Ở đó, động từ được coi là thành phần chủ đạo của một câu, và động
từ đó được liên kết với các dạng thức khác nhau của danh từ.)

Vocabulary:
1. incorporate: kết hợp
2. approach: cách tiếp cận

10. Pedagogy (Sư phạm)
In general terms, pedagogy refers to theories teaching, curriculum and instruction as
well as the ways in which formal teaching and learning in institutional settings such as schools
are planned and delivered. In educational theory, pedagogy is usually divided into curriculum,
instruction, evaluation of language. Since language is the essential medium of pedagogy, the
role of language in pedagogy is a focus of theorizing and research by linguists. applied
linguists, educators, and pedagogues.
Vocabulary:
1. curriculum: chương trình giảng dạy
2. instruction: chỉ dẫn, dạy dỗ
3. institutional setting: bối cảnh theo thể chế
4. deliver: phân phối
5. plan: lập kế hoạch
6. pedagogue: sư phạm

11. Course Design
a) Selection (Lựa chọn)
Having considered some traditional pedagogical application of CA we shall be
concerned with two pedagogical principles of Selection (What to teach) and Grading (when
teach) of target-language items.
A CA specifies those features of L2 which are different forms the corresponding
features of the LI, and, by implication, those which are identical. Our assumption is that the
L1: L2 identities will not have to be learned by the L2 learners, since he knows them already
by virtue of his knowledge.
The learner must be allowed, indeed encouraged, to transfer this 'suitable’ L1
knowledge to L2 usage. This means that those L2 structures that match L1 structures must
constitute part of the materials, since materials do not only teach what is new and unknown,
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but provide confirmation of interlingual identities. Certainly the learner needs to be given
opportunities to discover for himself that transfer from L1 in cases of isomorphism will result
in acceptable L2 utterances.
b) Grading (Phân trình độ)
The classical CA statement pertinent to grading is: “The student who comes in contact
with a foreign language will find some features of its quite easy and other extremely difficult.
Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him and those
elements that are different will be difficult” (Lado 1957).
Since it is a universal principle of educalion that learning should proceed from simple to
difficult, it seems to follow that isomorphic L2 elements should be taught first. There are a
number of objections that can immediately be raised, however. The first one is concerned with
the integrity of linguistic systems: if we postpone just one term of a system in the syllabus, the
student's grasp of the terms he has learnt must be not only partial, but distorted.
A second objection to grading by contrastivity is that as a criterion it may clash with

other equally important criteria: for example, since the English articles are contrastively
difficult for Slavic L1 learners, they should be delayed; but they have such hi frequency and
utility that they must be taught early.
A third objection to following the precept of ‘easiest first’ is a psychological one:
extended early experienced of positive transfer (+T) sets up expectations of continuing +T. So
the learner will inevitably be disappointed when he comes to learn contrasting L2 structures.
Vocabulary:
1. specify: xác định
2. grading: phân trình độ
3. by virtue of : nhờ có
4. constitute: cấu thành
5. isomorphism: đẳng tích
6. pertinent: thích hợp
7. integrity: sự tồn vẹn
8. partial: một phần
9. distort: bóp méo
10. clash: đụng độ, xung đột
11. precept: quy tắc

12. American and British English (Tiếng Anh Mỹ và Anh Anh)
The differences between British and American English can be seen in: spelling,
pronunciation, grammar, use of some words and phrases.
a. Differences in British/ American spelling.
* -our / -or
Example: colour/ color
* -ce / -se
Example: licence / license
* -ction / xion
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Example: inflection / inflexion
* -ise / ize
Example: realise / realize
* -yse / -yze
Example: analyse / analyze
* -lled / - led (ed- and -ing)
Example: travelled / traveled
* -re / -er
Example: centre / center
* -logue / -log
Example: catalogue / catalog
b. Differences in British/ American pronunciation.
Differences in pronunciation between American English (A.E) and British English
(B.E) can be divided into:
- Differences in accent:
A.E is rhotic while B.E is non-rhotic; that is, the letter ‘r’ is only pronounced in B.E
when it is immediately followed by a vowel sound (unless it is silent). Where A.E has /r/
before a consonant, B.E has nothing.
- Differences in stress:
Examples:
- B.E (1st stress) / A.E (2nd stress): caffeine, cannot
- B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (1st stress): defense, ice cream
- B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (3rd stress): advertisement
c. Differences in British/ American grammar.
- In names of American rivers, the word ‘river’ usually comes after the name (for
example, Colorado River), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in River Thames).
- The use of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past: the differences involving the use
of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past include ‘already’, ‘just’ and ‘yet’
*British English:

- I have just had lunch.
- I have already seen that film.
- Have you finished your homework yet?
* American English:
- I just had lunch / I have just had lunch.
- I already saw that film./ I have already seen that film.
- Did you finish your homework yet? / Have you finished your homework yet?
d. Differences in British/ American vocabulary.
Let’s see the following pairs of B.E and A.E as examples:
1. (A.E) truck / lorry (B.E)
2. (A.E) on the weekend / at the weekend (B.E)
3. (A.E) on a team / in a team (B.E)
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4. (A.E) football / soccer (B.E)
5. (A.E) dreamed / dreamt (B.E)
Vocabulary:

1. rhotic: phát âm rõ ‘r’
2. spelling: chính tả

13. Standard English (Tiếng Anh chuẩn mực)
Standard English (S.E) is the prestigious variety of English that is understood all over
the world where any knowledge of any variety of English exists. S.E relates to vocabulary and
grammar and independent of pronunciation.
S.E is a term generally applied to a form of the English language that is thought to be
normative for educated native speakers. It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and
to some degree pronunciation or possibly accents.
S.E is not widely produced in speech, it is only used in writing, only a minority of people

within a country actually use it when they talk.
Standard words in English are divided into neutral words, colloquial words, bookish
words.
* Neutral words take the majority of the English vocabulary. They are used in all styles and
all spheres of human life, neither formal nor informal).
* Colloquial words are used in spoken language rather than in written language. They are
informal , casual lively, friendly, humorous and a great number of them are short or shortened
words such as ‘kid’, ‘dad’, ….
* Bookish words are words chiefly used in formal speech, writing, poetry, …
Vocabulary:
1. normative: có tính quy phạm, quy chuẩn
2. encompass: bao gồm
3. minority; thiểu số
4. prestigious: uy tín
5. neutral word: từ trung tính
6.colloquial word: từ thơng tục
7. bookish word: từ sách vở
8. casual lively: sống động giản dị
9. formal: trang trọng
10. informal” không trang trọng

14. Non - Standard English (Tiếng Anh không chuẩn mực)
The term ‘non-standard’ was introduced by linguists and lexicographers to describe
usage and language varieties that had been labeled with terms such as vulgar and illiterate.
* There are some examples of non – standard words:
- ain’t (am not/ is not/ has not/ have not)
- amn’t (am not)
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- wanna (want to, want)
- oughta (ought to)
- lotta (lot of)
- gonna (going)
- gotcha (I got you)
- gimme (give me)
- dunno (don’t know)
* slang (is used by all people and it changes very quickly):
- dough (money), buck (dollar)
* vulgar (‘dirty’ words used by few people)
- dammed, bloody, hell
* dialect words (belong to definite territory or locality)
- loch (lake).
Vocabulary:
1. label: dán nhãn
2. vulgar: tục tĩu
3. slang: tiếng lóng
4. dialect: phương ngữ
5. illiterate: mù chữ

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B. BASIC LINGUISTIC CONCEPTS
(CÁC KHÁI NIỆM NGÔN NGỮ HỌC CĂN BẢN)

1. Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học)
The study of language as a system of human communication. Linguistics includes many
different approaches to the study of language and many different areas of investigation, for
example sound systems (phonetics, phonology), sentence structure (syntax), relationships

between language and cognition (cognitive linguistics), meaning systems (semantics,
pragmatics, functions of language), as well as language and social factors (sociolinguistics).
Several specialized branches of linguistics have also developed in combination with
other disciplines, e.g, applied linguistics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics,
forensic linguistics.
Vocabulary:
1. human: thuộc về con người
2. approach: sự tiếp cận
3. investigation: sự nghiên cứu
4. Phonetics (the study and classification of speech sounds): ngữ âm học
5. Phonology (the system of contrastive relationships among the speech sounds that constitute the fundamental
components of a language): Âm vị học
6. Syntax (the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language): Cú pháp
7. cognition: sự nhận thức, tri nhận
8. Semantics (the branch of linguistics and logic concerned with meaning): Ngữ nghĩa học
9. Pragmatics (the branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used):
Ngữ dụng học.
10. Sociolinguistics (the study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of regional,
class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism): Ngôn ngữ học xã hội
11. specialized branch: chuyên ngành
12. discipline: môn học (ở bậc Đại học)
13. forensic: tội phạm học
14. Applied linguistics: Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng
15. Anthropological linguistics: Ngôn ngữ học nhân chủng
16. Psycholinguistics (the study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and psychological processes,
including the process of language acquisition): Ngôn ngữ học Tâm lý

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2. Structural Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học cấu trúc)
Definition: An approach to linguistics which stresses the importance of language as a
system and which investigates the place that linguistic units such as sounds, words, sentences
have within this system.
Structural linguists, for example, studied the distribution of sounds within the words of
a language: that is, whether certain sounds appear only at the beginning of words or also in
the middle or at the end. They defined some sounds in a language as distinctive and used in
the identification of words and some as variants. Similar studies of distribution and
classification were carried out in morphology and syntax.
In its widest sense, the term has been used for various groups of linguists, including
those of the Prague School, but most often it is used to refer to a group of American linguists
such as Bloom Field and Fries, who published mainly in the 1930s to 1950s. The work of these
linguists was based on the theory behaviourism and had a considerable influence on some
language teaching methods.
Vocabulary:
1. distinctive: khác biệt
2. define: định rõ, miêu tả
3. identification: sự nhận dạng
4. Prague School: Trường phái ngơn ngữ học Praha (Cộng hịa Séc) về Ngữ pháp chức năng.
5. variant: biến thể
6. classification: sự phân loại
7. morphology (the study of the forms of a morpheme.): hình thái học ngơn ngữ, hình vị học

3. Macro-linguistics (Ngơn ngữ học Vĩ mô)
Macro-linguistics is a structural linguistics’ term denoting the branch of linguistics that
deals with language as a whole. It is also a field of study concerned with language in its
broadest sense and including cultural and behavioral features associated with language.
The interactive study between language and language-related disciplines such as
psychology, sociology, ethnography, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches
of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics etc.

Vocabulary:
1. interactive: tương tác
2. ethnography: nhân chủng học
3. artificial intelligence : (the theory and development of computer systems able to perform tasks that normally
require human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and translation
between languages.): Trí tuệ nhân tạo
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4. Two areas of Macrolinguistics (Hai lĩnh vực của Ngôn ngữ học Vĩ mô)
The two areas of Macrolinguistics are text analysis and discourse analysis.
In general, a broadening of scope is aimed at, both “vertically” in terms of larger linguistic
units and horizontally, to incorporate socio-cultural settings within linguistics. This
broadening of scope has so far been achieved in two ways. The first is on the formal level and
addresses the question of how sentences are organised into larger, suprasentential units or
texts. The second direction is the functional one, and looks at the ways in which people put
language to use: this is the field of discourse analysis.
The two terms text analysis and discourse analysis have sometimes been confused.
Some have suggested that the former refers to the European traditions and the latter to AngloAmerican traditions for doing the same thing. Another approach is to see them as
complementary, discourse analysis starting with the outer frame of situations and working
inwards to find the formal linguistic correlates to the situational variables, while text analysis
starts with linguistic forms and asks in which contexts they are appropriate.
The distinction being made is parallel to that drawn by Widdowson (1978) between
usage and use. The former, he says, has to do with the grammaticality of sentence, and an
important part of foreign language learning "involves acquiring the ability to compose correct
sentences". Such ability, though necessary, is not sufficient to equip the learner for
communication in the FL, however: he also needs to know which sentences are appropriate to
a particular context. Rules of use need to be acquired, as well as rules of usage. Now, a well formed sentence can be appropriate to its context in two ways: it can be formally appropriate,
in not violating the rules of textual organisation, and it can be functionally appropriate, in that
it communicates what its speaker intends. Or a sentence can be formally as well as functionally

inappropriate. Formal inappropriacy to linguistic context results in incohesive text, while
functional inappropriacy will lead to a breakdown in communication, that is, to incoherence.
Vocabulary:
1. vertically: theo chiều dọc
2. horizontally: theo chiều ngang
3. suprasentential:siêu năng lực
4. complementary: bổ sung
5. inwards: hướng nội
6. correlates to: tương quan, tương liên với
7. incohesive: không gắn kết
8. inappropriacy: không phù hợp
9. incoherence: không mạch lạc
10. address the question: trả lời, xử lý

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5. Micro-linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Vi mô).
Microlinguistics directly analyses linguistic phenomena, such as phonology, grammar,
and lexicology.
Micro-linguistics is a branch of linguistics that concerns itself with the study language
in the abstract, without regard to the meaning or notional content of linguistic expressions. In
micro-linguistics, language is reduced to the abstract mental elements of syntax and
phonology.
These are broad terms which refer to two major types of linguistics. Microlinguistics
refers to phonetics, phonology, grammar and semantics, whereas macrolinguistics covers
sociolinguistics, discourse analysis and other related disciplines.
Vocabulary:
1. phenomena: hiện tượng
2. abstract: trừu tượng

3. mental element: yếu tố tinh thần
4. discourse analysis: phân tích diễn ngơn
5. sociolinguistics: Ngơn ngữ học Xã hội (the study of language in relation to social factors, including differences of
regional, class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism.)

6. Diachronic Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Lịch đại)
Diachronic linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies how languages
change over time, for example the change in the sound systems of the Romance languages
from their roots in Latin (and other languages) to modern times or the study of changes
between Early English to Modern British English. They need for diachronic and synchronic
descriptions to be kept apart was emphasized by the Swiss linguist Saussure. Not all
approaches to linguistic analysis make this distinction.
Vocabulary:
1. Romance language (a group of related languages all derived from Vulgar Latin within historical times and
forming a subgroup of the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. The major languages of the
family include French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, all national languages): Ngôn ngữ gốc
La tinh.
2. synchronic: đồng đại
3. root: nguồn gốc

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7. Synchronic Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học Đồng đại)
The study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the
present or a particular poin in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead
languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics (or
historical linguistics), the study of a language over a period of time.
In the 20th century, synchronic description has come to be regarded as prior to
diachronic description; the latter presupposes that synchronic descriptions at various stages of

the development of a language have already been carried out. Previously, linguists had placed
emphasis on diachronic linguistics. The terminological distinction between synchronic and
diachronic linguistics was first made by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913).
Vocabulary:
1. terminological: về thuật ngữ
2. distinction: sự phân biệt
3. dead language (a language which is no longer in everyday spoken use, such as Latin): tử ngữ.
4. presuppose: giả định trước
5. dead language; Tử ngữ (a language which is no longer in everyday spoken use, such as Latin).
6. prior to: trước
7. the latter: cái sau (dùng khi liệt kê - the former: cái trước)

8. Applied Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng)
Applied linguistic has two definitions:
1, The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.
2, The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as
lexicography, translation, speech pathology, etc.
Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and
information theory as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models
of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such
as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics, etc.
Vocabulary:
1. practical problem: vấn đề thực tế, thực tiễn
2. lexicography: từ điển học
3. speech pathology: bệnh lý ngôn ngữ
4. Sociology: Xã hội học
5. Psychology: Tâm lý học
6. theoretical model: mơ hình lý thuyết
7. syllabus design: thiết kế giáo trình
8. speech therapy: trị liệu ngơn ngữ

9. stylistics (the study of the distinctive styles found in particular literary genres and in the works of individual
writers): Phong cách học / Văn phong học, Phong cách học
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9. Corpus Linguistics (Ngôn ngữ học khối liệu)
An approach to investigating language structure and use through the analysis of large
databases of real language examples stored on computer.
Issues amenable to corpus linguistics include the meanings of words across
registers, the distribution and function of grammatical forms and categories, the investigation
of lexico-grammatical associations (associations of specific words with particular grammatical
constructions), the study of discourse characteristics, register variation, and (when learner
corpora are available) issues in language acquisition and development.
Vocabulary:
1. database: cơ sở dữ liệu
2. amendable: có thể sửa đổi
3. register (là một bộ nhớ dung lượng nhỏ và rất nhanh được sử dụng để tăng tốc độ xử lý của các chương
trình máy tính bằng cách cung cấp các truy cập trực tiếp đến các giá trị cần dùng): thanh ghi / bộ nhớ trong
máy tính
4. distribution: sự phân bố
5. association: sự kết hợp
6. language acquisition; sự tiếp thu, lĩnh hội ngôn ngữ
7. grammatical categories: các phạm trù ngữ pháp
8. variation: sự biến đổi

10. Interlanguage (Liên ngôn ngữ)
Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second- and foreign-language
learners who are in the process of learning a language.
In other words, Interlanguage is a language or form of language having features of two
others, typically a pidgin or a version produced by a foreign learner.

In language learning, learner language is influenced by several different processes. These
include:
- borrowing patterns from the mother tongue.
- extending patterns from the target language, e.g. by analogy.
- expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known.
Since the language which the learner produces using these processes differs from both
the mother tongue and the target language, it is sometimes called an interlanguage, or is said
to result from the learner’s interlanguage system or approximative system.
Vocabulary:
1. pidgin: ngôn ngữ pha trộn (a language that is formed from a mixture of several languages
when speakers of different languages need to talk to each other)
2. extend: mở rộng
3. analogy: sự tương tự
4. approximative: xấp xỉ
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11. Meta-language (Siêu ngôn ngữ)
Meta-language is the language used to analyze or describe a language. For example,
the sentence: ‘In English, the phoneme /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop is in meta-language. It
explains that the b-sound in English is made with vibration of the vocal cords and with the
two lips stopping the airstream from the lungs’.
Vocabulary:
1. phoneme: âm vị
2. bilabial: hai môi (trong miệng)
3. vibration: sự rung
4. lip: môi
5. vocal cord: dây thanh
6. airstream: luồng khơng khí
7. lung: phổi

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C. PHÂN TÍCH NGƠN NGỮ HỌC
(LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS)
1. Error Analysis (Phân tích lỗi)
a. Definition: Error Analysis is the study and analysis of the errors made by second
language learners.
Error analysis may be carried out in order to:
- identify strategies which learners use in language learning.
- try to identify the causes of learner errors.
- obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching
or in the preparation of teaching materials.
Error analysis developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and set out to
demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learners’ mother tongue but reflected
universal learning strategies. Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to
contrastive analysis. Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of
errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them.
b. Kinds: There are two kinds of errors: intralingual and interlingual errors. A basic
distinction was drawn between intralingual and interlingual errors. Intralingual errors were
classified as overgeneralizations (errors caused by extension of target language rules to
inappropriate contexts), simplifications (errors resulting from learner’s producing simpler
linguistic rules than those found in the target language), developmental errors (those reflecting
natural stages of development), communication-based errors (errors resulting from strategies
of communication), induced errors (those resulting from transfer of training errors of
avoidance (resulting from failure to use certain target language structures because they were
thought to be too difficult), or errors of overproduction (structures being used too frequently).
Attempts to apply such categories have been problematic however, due to the difficulty
of determining the cause of errors. By the late 1970s, error analysis had largely been superseeded by studies of interlanguage and second language acquisition.

c. Mistake and error (Sơ xuất và lỗi).
A mistake made by a learner when writing or speaking and which is caused by lack of
attention, fatigue, carelessness or some other aspects of performance.
Errors are sometimes classified according to vocabulary (lexical error), pronunciation
(phonological error), and grammar (syntactic error), misunderstanding of a speaker's intention
or meaning (interpretive error), production of the wrong communication effects.

Vocabulary:
1. identify: nhận dạng, xác định
2. strategy: chiến lược
3. cause: nguyên nhân
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4. obtain: thu được
5. teaching material: tài liệu giảng dạy
6. assume: cho rằng
7. intralingual: nội tại ngôn ngữ
8. interlangual: liên ngơn ngữ
9. overgeneralization; khái qt hóa q mức
10. extension; sự mở rộng
11. inappropriate: khơng thích hợp
12. simplification: sự đơn giản hóa
13. developmental: thuộc q trình phát triển
14. induce: theo cảm tính

2. Phatic Communication / Communion (Giao tiếp xã giao)
Phatic communication is verbal or non-verbal communication that has a social function,
such as to start a conversation, greet someone, ...
The term used by the British-Polish anthropologist Malinowski to refer to

communication between people which is not intended to seek or convey information but has
the social function of establishing or maintaining social contact.
Examples of phatic
communion in English include such expressions as “How are you?” and "Nice day, isn't it?”
Vocabulary:
1. function: chức năng
2. greet: chào
3. verbal/ non-verbal: dùng lời nói / khơng dùng lời nói
4. anthropologist: nhà nhân chủng học
5. intend: có ý định
6. seek: tìm kiếm
7. convey information: truyền đạt thơng tin
8. establish: thiết lập
9. maintain: duy trì
10. contact: liên hệ

3. Indexical information (Thơng tin chỉ mục)
Information which is communicated, usually indirectly, about the speaker or writer's
social class, age, sex, nationality, ethnic group, etc., or his or her emotional state (e.g, whether
excited, angry, surprised, bored, etc.).
Vocabulary:
1. indexical: thuộc mục lục, chỉ mục
2. ethnic group: nhóm dân tộc
3. social class: giai cấp
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4. national: quốc tịch
5. emotional: thuộc cảm xúc, thuộc tình cảm
6. state: trạng thái

4. Deictic information (Thông tin biểu lộ)
A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance to a time, place, or
person(s). Examples of deictic expressions in English are:
a) ‘here’ and ‘there’, which refer to a place in relation to the speaker:
- The letter is here. (near the speaker)
- The letter is over there. (further away from the speaker)
b, which refers to the speaker or writer.
‘You’ which refers to the person or person addressed. ‘He/she/they’ which refer to some
other person or persons.
Vocabulary:
1. deictic: chỉ, biểu lộ
2. person: ngôi thứ (xưng hô)
3. refer to: đề cập tới

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PART 02 :
SO SÁNH VÀ ĐỐI CHIẾU
CÁC HỆ THỐNG NGÔN NGỮ
(COMPARING AND CONTRASTING LANGUAGE SYSTEMS)

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1. The two general principles of executing a CA (Hai nguyên tắc chung để tiến hành so
sánh, đối chiếu ngôn ngữ)
Before suggesting how CAs are executed on various levels of language, it will be useful
to outline the general principles of the procedures: since repetition will be avoided by so doing,

a measure of economy will be gained.
Executing a CA involves two steps: description and comparison; and the steps are taken
in that order. These two steps: description of L1 and L2, and comparison of the two.
Furthermore, the two descriptions need to parallel. The minimum requirement of ‘parallel
description’ is that the two languages be described through the same model of description.
First, different models can describe certain features of language more successfully than
other models. Second, if the “same” data from L1 and L2 are described by two different
models, the descriptions are likely to highlight different facets of the data. When this happens,
the subsequent comparison will be unnecessarily difficult, and, what is more serious still, the
analyst will be uncertain of the status of the contrasts he identifies.
Linguistic typology tells us that human languages fall into several types according to
which grammatical, phonological or lexical features they show preferences for. If some
models are better at describing certain features, it must follow that some models will describe
certain languages better than others.
We seem to be faced by a dilemma, then: on the one hand, there are good theoretical
reasons for using the same model for yielding the descriptions of L1 and L2; on the other hand
there are equally cogent practical reasons why this is undesirable.
1, Describe L1 and L2 data independently, using the models which yield the fullest
descriptions of either language, and then translate these two descriptions into a form which is
model-neutral.
2, A second solution would be to abandon the requirement that the two descriptions need to
be equally exhaustive. A number of contrastivists have suggested that a CA should indeed
show a descriptive imbalance, in favor of L2.
Vocabulary:
1. execute: tiến hành, thực hiện
2. a measure of economy: biện pháp tiết kiệm
3. parallel: song song
4. model: mẫu, mơ hình
5. facet: khía cạnh
6. highlight: nhấn mạnh

7. subsequent: tiếp theo
8. identify: nhận dạng
9. dilemma: sự tiến thối lưỡng nan, tình trạng khó xử
10. yield: sản ra, sản sinh
11. cogent: chắc chắn, vững chắc
12. independently: độc lập
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13. abandon: từ bỏ
14. exhaustive: đầy đủ, thấu đáo
15. imbalance: sự mất cân bằng
16. equally: ngang bằng, bình đẳng

2. Traditional Applications of C.A (Các ứng dụng truyền thống của Phân tích đối chiếu
ngơn ngữ)
CA has applications in predicting and diagnosing a proportion of the L2 errors
committed by learners with a common L1, and in the design of testing instruments for such
learners.
a) Prediction (Dự báo)
There seems to be three things that a CA can predict: it can predict - in the sense of preidentify - what aspects will cause problems; or it can predict difficulty; or it can predict errors,
and a fourth possibility of predicting tenacity of certain errors, that is, their strong resistance
to extinction through time and teaching. There are, of course, purely quantitative limitations
on the numbers of learners errors that CAs can predict, limitations stemming from the fact that
not all errors are the results of LI interference, i e interlingual errors. Other major sources of
errors have been recognized which are of a ‘non-contrastive’ origin. These include: the effects
of target-language asymmetric (intralingual errors); transfer of training; strategy of L2
learning ; and L2 communication strategies.
b) Scales of Difficulty (Độ khó)
The most well-known hierarchy of Fl learning difficulty is proposed by Stockwell and

Bowen (1965) for phonology. The Stockwell et al, scales are based on the notions of positive
and negative transfer potential, and the conditions for such transfers are assumed to be statable
in terms of relations holding between matched rules of Ll and L2. There are three possible
interlingual rule relationships: i) L1 has a rule and L2 has equivalent one. ii) L1 has a rule but
L2 has no equivalent. iii) L2 has a rule but LI has no equivalent.
The second step is to ident the types of choices that either language makes available,
and relating these choices. There are three types of choice: optional, obligatory and zero. These
different availabilities of choice in L1 and L2 allow eight kinds of relationship between the
two languages: the result is an eight-point hierachy of difficulty by coalescing.
c) Diagnosis of Error (Chẩn đoán lỗi)
An important ingredient of the teacher’s role as monitor and assessor of learner's
performance is to know why certain errors are committed. It is on the basis of such diagnostic
knowledge that the teacher organizes feedback to learners and remedial work. Even the
learners should know why he has committed errors if he is to self-monitor and avoid these
same errors in the future..
d) Testing (Kiểm tra)
One of the requirements of a good language test is that should have validity: it should
be a true measure of the student's command of the language he has been taught. The most valid
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test therefore would be one that was comprehensive ,i.e. it would test everything that has been
taught.
CA will have two roles to play in testing. First, since sampling is required, it will carry
suggestions about what to test, and to what degree to test different L2 items .
Vocabulary:
1. diagnose: chẩn đoán
2. predict: dự báo
3. testing instrument: công cụ kiểm tra đánh giá
4. pre-identify: xác định trước

5. tenacity: sự bền bỉ
6. resistance: sức đề kháng
7. quantitative limitation: giới hạn về định lượng
8. stem from: bắt nguồn từ
9. asymmetric: bất đối xứng
10. interference: sự can thiệp
11. source: nguồn
12. recognize: nhận ra
13. target-language: ngôn ngữ đích
14. transfer: chuyển sang
15. strategy: chiến lược
16. scale: quy mơ
17. hierarchy: thứ bậc
18. propose: đề xuất
19. positive and negative: tích cực và tiêu cực
20. assume: giả sử, cho rằng
21. statable: ổn định
22. potential: tiềm tàng
23. ident: nhận dạng
24. optional: tuỳ chọn
25. obligatory and zero: bắt buộc và không
26. coalescing: hợp nhất
27. ingredient: thành phần
28. monitor: giám sát
29. commit: mắc phải, cam kết
30. remedial work: khắc phục hậu quả
31. validity: hiệu lực
32. command: lệnh
33. comprehensive: toàn diện

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