Hoạt động tự đánh giá của sinh viên đại học Việt Nam trong kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh

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<b>HUE, 2024HUE UNIVERSITY</b>

<b>UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES ANDINTERNATIONALSTUDIES</b>

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<b>HUE, 2024HUE UNIVERSITY</b>

<b>UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONALSTUDIES</b>

<b>HUỲNH ÁI</b>

<b>VIETNAMESE EFL TERTIARY STUDENTS'SELF-ASSESSMENT IN WRITING SKILLDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THESIS IN THEORY AND</b>

<b>METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGETEACHING</b>

<b>Dr. TRẦN QUANG NGỌC THUÝDr. ĐẶNG TẤN TÍN</b>

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No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the thesis. Thisthesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any othertertiaryinstitution.

<b>HuynhAi</b>

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This doctoral thesis represents the culmination of my personal endeavours combinedwith the dedicated collaboration of numerous individuals, marking a significant andprolonged undertaking. I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to these individualswithout whom the realization of this work would not have been possible.

Foremost, I extend my deepest appreciation to my esteemed academic supervisors, Dr.Trần Quang Ngọc Thuý and Dr. Đặng Tấn Tín, whose indispensable guidance, astutefeedback, unwavering support, and constant encouragement were instrumental in shapingthis thesis amidst challenging circumstances. I consider myself exceedingly fortunate andcontented to have been under the tutelage of these two committed mentors, who providedmultifaceted perspectives throughout the completion of thisresearch.

Furthermore, I would like to convey my profound gratitude to my former supervisor, Dr.Hồ Sĩ Thắng Kiệt, with the hope that even in the ethereal realm, he may be aware of mysentiments expressedhere.

My sincere appreciation also goes to all the lecturers, professors, and stakeholders at theUniversity of Foreign Languages and International Studies, Hue University. I amindebted to the instructors who generously imparted invaluable knowledge, offeringconstructive comments and critical insights that significantly contributed to thecompletion of mythesis.

I extend my gratitude tomydear students, whose voluntary participation in completingquestionnaires, responding to interviews, writing essays, and self- assessing, as well asmaintaining reflective journals and attending a short course within the empirical project,has been vital. I am also thankful to my colleagues in the PhD group and friends whosupported me with invaluable experiences and shared the workload throughout the entireprocess of completing thisthesis.

Lastly, but by no means least, I am profoundly grateful to my family members – mybiological parents, my parents-in-law, my wife, and my wonderful children – for theirunwavering love and constant encouragement. Their boundless affection has been acontinual source of inspiration and motivation throughout my academic journey.

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<b>LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS</b>

CEFR: The Common European Framework of Reference for LanguagesEFL: English as a ForeignLanguage

ESL: English as Second Language

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2.3.2.2. Benefits of self-assessment inEFLwriting...28

2.3.3. Self-assessment instruments in EFLwritingclasses...30

2.3.3.1. Self-assessment checklists inlearning writing...30

<b>CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY...42</b>

3.1. Research approach andresearchdesign...42

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<b>CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGSANDDISCUSSION...69</b>

4.1. EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment inwritingskill...69

4.1.1. Overview of students’ perceptions of self-assessment inwriting skill...69

4.1.2. Students’ perceptions of general self-assessment inwritingskill...69

4.1.3. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in theirwritingskill...74

4.1.4. Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment inlearning writing...79

4.1.5. Discussion ofthefindings...84

4.1.5.1. Students’ perceptions of overall self-assessment inwritingskill...85

4.1.5.2. Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in theirwritingskill...87

4.1.5.3. Students’ perceptions of the benefitsofself-assessment...89

4.1.6. Summary the findingsforRQ1...92

4.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment inwritingskill...93

4.2.1. General quantitative results of students’ practicesofself-assessment...93

4.2.2. Students’ reported self-assessment practicesinwriting...93

4.2.3. Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in thewritingprocess...99

4.2.4. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist inlearningwriting...101

4.2.4.2. Students’reflectivejournals...103

4.2.4.3. Students’ self-assessment of the overall essaycontents...105

4.2.4.4. Students’ self-assessment of theessayorganization...109

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4.2.4.5. Students’ self-assessment of the languagewritingskill...110

4.2.5. Discussion ofstudents’practices...114

4.2.5.1. Students’ reportedpractices...115

4.2.5.2. Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learningwriting.1174.2.6. Summary of the findingsforRQ2...119

4.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessment inwritingskill...120

4.3.1. Students’ reported challenges of self-assessment inwriting skill...120

5.1.1. Students’ perceptions of self-assessmentinwriting...130

5.1.2. Students’ practices of self-assessment inlearningwriting...131

5.1.3. Students’ challenges of self-assessmentinwriting...132

5.2. Implications...133

5.2.1. Implications forEFLstudents...133

5.2.2. Implications for teachersofwriting...134

5.2.3. Implications for curriculum developersandpolicymakers...135

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Appendix B: Theofficialquestionnaire...P5Appendix C: Thepilotinterview...P12Appendix D: The officialfocus-groupinterview...P13

Appendix E: The official questionnaire of students’ using self-assessment checklist inawritingcourse...P15Appendix F:Self-assessmentchecklist...P17Appendix G: Prompts for students’reflectivejournal...P20Appendix H: A sample of the interview codingandtheming...P21Appendix I: A sample of an onlinewritingclass...P28Appendix J: A sample of a student using self-assessment checklist to assess a firstessay draft and revise into aseconddraft...P29Appendix K: A sample of a student’sreflectivejournal...P33Appendix L: A summary criteria of students' self-assessment oftheessay...P35Appendix M: Content of training program in apublicuniversity...P39Appendix N: Content of training program in anon-public university...P38

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<b>LIST OF TABLES</b>

<b>Table 3.1.The sample sizes of the presentstudy...48</b>

<b>Table 3.2.Summary of datacollectioninstruments...55</b>

<b>Table 3.3: Summary of Cronbach’sAlphaCoefficients...60</b>

<b>Table 4.1.Students' perceptions of general self-assessment inwriting skill...70</b>

<b>Table 4.2.Students' perceptions of self-efficacy in theirwriting skill...74</b>

<b>Table 4.3.Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessmentin writing...85</b>

<b>Table 4.4.Students’ reported self-assessment practices inlearningwriting...95</b>

<b>Table 4.5. Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in thewritingprocess...99</b>

<b>Table 4.6.Participants’ reflection on the role ofself-assessmentchecklists...102</b>

<b>Table 4.7.Examples of students’ self-assessment of theintroductoryparagraph...106</b>

<b>Table 4.8. Example of students’ self-assessment of theconclusionparagraph...108</b>

<b>Table 4.9.Students' reported challenges of self-assessment inwritingskill...121</b>

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<b>LIST OF FIGURES</b>

<b>Figure 2.1.Cyclical phases ofself-regulatedlearning...17</b>

<b>Figure 3.1. Mixedmethodsdesign...43</b>

<b>Figure 3.2. Mixed methods sequential exploratory design for thepresentstudy...44</b>

<b>Figure 3.3. The analytical framework ofthestudy...50</b>

<b>Figure 4.1. General results of students’ perceptionofself-assessment...68</b>

<b>Figure 4.2. Students' perception of self-efficacy in their specificwritingskill...76</b>

<b>Figure 4.3. General questionnaire results of students’ practicesofself-assessment...92</b>

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In recent decades, extensive research has explored into self-assessment in centered education globally, such as examining its consistency with other assessmentforms, students' perceptions, and its association with self-regulated learning models.However, numerous unexplored dimensions persist, particularly the self-assessment ofVietnamese EFL tertiary students in learning writing as a skill, which has long beenignored in teaching practices. This study aims to investigate the perceptions, practices,and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill among Vietnamese students within thisspecific context.

learner-To answer three research questions, a mixed-methods approach that incorporatedquantitative and qualitative approaches for collecting and analyzing data. The first set ofdata on students’ reported perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment inlearning writing was gathered via a questionnaire delivered to 450 participants and focus-group interviews with 32 participants from the group of questionnaire respondents. Also,an empirical writing class with 18 students gathered data through a questionnaire,reflective journals, self-assessment checklists, and students' writingpapers.ThefindingshighlightVietnamesetertiarystudents'positiveperceptionsofself-assessmentinlearning writing, emphasizing its role in improvingwritingskill, enhancing self-efficacy,and providing various benefits. In terms of practice, studentsdemonstratedastrongsenseofresponsibilityandactiveparticipationinself-

assessmentactivities.Notably, EFL students made a robust effort to employ assessmentcheckliststoself-assesstheirwriting,reflectontheirstrengthsandweaknesses,andtakeownership of their progress. However,challengesarise from students'limited experienceinself-assessment and relatively low proficiency in English writing.Consequently,somestudents struggled withidentifying grammar errors,including issues with word choice,articles, pronoun usage, verb agreement, andmechanics.This study provides substantialcontributions across theoretical, methodological, and practical dimensions. Thetheoretical framework establishes the groundwork for understanding Vietnamese tertiaryEFL students' self-assessment of writing skill, bridging a crucial knowledge gap inVietnamese higher education. The practical implications offer valuable insights for EFLeducators in Vietnam and in the world, highlighting the positive impact of self-assessment on writing skill improvement and providing guidance on integration intoinstruction through tools like checklists and reflective thinking. The identification ofchallenges faced by students during self- assessment informs strategies for educators tooffer targeted support and create an optimal learningenvironment.

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<b>CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION</b>

<i>This chapter provides an overview of the current research, presenting details oftheresearch background, rationale, aim, and research questions. It also defines theresearch scope and then shows the research significance. Finally, the chapter givesprecise details of the research organization.</i>

<b>1.1. Researchbackground</b>

In the past few decades, Vietnam's educational system, especially in foreign languageeducation, has undergone significant transformations. English has emerged as thedominant foreign language in the country due to socio-economic development andeducational policies. It has become essential for international communication, trade, andattracting foreign investments. English proficiency is now highly sought after foremployment, research, and various purposes, such as travelling and studying abroad.Along with the national renovation policy, English as a foreign language (EFL) has beenofficially taught as a compulsory subject in the educational system since after the SixthNational Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party in December1986.

Recently, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has introducedsignificant policy changes to prioritize learner-centered learning and foster self-studyskills in higher education. For instance, there have been a number of standard policiespertaining to tertiary education, including the implementation of a credit-based trainingsystem and a shift towards a combination of summative and formative assessments(MOET Decision No. 25/2006/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 26<small>th</small>June 2006; MOET Decision No.43/2007/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 15<small>th</small>August 2007). These policy decisions have positivelyreflected a growing recognition of the importance of students' role in the learning processwithin educational contexts. The shift towards learner-centered learning and theimplementation of formative assessment practices represent important advancements inVietnam's higher education system. These changes not only empower students to takecharge of their learning process but also promote a more holistic and effective approach toeducation that aligns with contemporary educational theories and best practices.

The growing interestinformative assessment has positively impacted teachingandassessmentpractices, emphasizingtheimprovementofteachingqualityandstudent learning. Formativeassessment empowers studentstomonitor their progress, take responsibilityfortheirlearning,anddevelop learner autonomy (Andrade&Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011;Lee,2017).

engaginginactivities,andparticipatinginclassroom assessment through self-assessment, peer

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assessment,andcollaborativework(Andrade, 2019; Andrade&Boulay, 2003; Brown&Harris,2013; NguyễnHồHoàngThuỷ &TrươngThịAnh, 2021). Self-assessment,inparticular,promotes learner autonomyandenhances independent learning, aligning with theprinciplesofformative assessment (Boud,1995;Gardner,2000).

<b>1.2. Researchrationale</b>

In education literature, the shift towards learner-centered learning in higher education is asignificant development in Vietnam's educational system. This approach emphasizesstudent engagement, active learning, and the development of critical thinking skills(Brown & Harris, 2013; Butler, 2016; Smith, 2018). Higher education institutionsprioritize learner-centered learning to empower students to take ownership of theirlearning process and develop the necessary skills for lifelong learning. In addition,learner-centered learning is aligned with contemporary educational theories, such asconstructivism and social constructivism, which emphasize the active role of learners inconstructing their knowledge (Adam, 2017; Dewey, 1933; Johnson, 2015). It allowslearners to actively engage with the language, practice communication skills, and developa deeper understanding of the language's cultural and contextual aspects. In writingclasses, for instance, learner-centered learning encourages students to actively engagewith the English language when developing their writing skill. Instead of passivelyreceiving knowledge, students are encouraged to participate in various writing activities,such as brainstorming, drafting, editing, and revising (Oshima & Hogue, 2006). Learnershave more opportunities to practice writing in different genres, styles, and contexts, whichallows them to explore and experiment with the language. Fostering learner autonomy indeveloping students' writing skill, students can explore their learning styles, set goals, andtake responsibility for their language acquisition process.

Remarkably, formative assessment is an integral component of student-centered learningand has gained increasing attention in educational development, especially in EFLcontexts (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Andrade & Du, 2007; Brown & Harris, 2014). Unlikesummative assessment, which assesses learning outcomes at the end of a course orsemester, formative assessment focuses on providing ongoing feedback to students duringthe learning process. It is designed to monitor student progress, identify areas ofimprovement, and inform instructional decision-making (Butler, 2016; Lee, 2017; Race,2020). In Vietnam’s higher education, formative assessment in English languageeducation can take various forms, including self-assessment, peer assessment, teacherfeedback, and collaborative activities. According to Boud (2013), self-assessmentencourages students to reflect on their language proficiency, set personal learning goals,

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and evaluate their progress. It empowers students to take charge of their own learning.Peer assessment enables students to provide constructive feedback to their peers, fosteringa supportive and collaborative learning environment. Teacher feedback and classroomassessment activities further contribute to the formative assessment process by offeringtimely guidance and facilitating students' language development.

Besides, formative assessment aligns with the principles of learner-centered learning, as itempowers students to actively engage in the learning process, monitor their own learning,and take ownership of their progress (Andrade, 2010; Boud, 2013; Lee & Mak, 2018). Itpromotes metacognitive skills, self-regulation, and critical thinking abilities, which areessential for students to become proficient and autonomous learners and contribute totheir overall growth as effective communicators and critical thinkers in both academic andreal-world contexts.

Moreover, self-assessment plays a crucial role in the formative assessment process asprovided by Andrade (2018) and Boud (1995). These researchers underscored that self-assessment has an important role in enhancing learners' understanding of the learningobjectives and effectively monitoring their progress toward their goals. Andrade (2018)implied that self-assessment allows learners to actively engage with the learning processby evaluating their own work and progress. It means that students can gain a clearerunderstanding of the intended learning outcomes when taking an active role in assessingtheir performance. They become more aware of the specific criteria and standards againstwhich their work is assessed, thus enhancing their overall perceptions of the learningobjectives. Additionally, self-assessment provides students with opportunities to reflect ontheir strengths and weaknesses, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and setrealistic goals. Students can take ownership of their learning process and make informeddecisions about their learning strategies and priorities by actively monitoring their ownprogress. Likewise, Boud (1995) further supported the importance of self-assessment instudent-centered learning by highlighting its role in promoting metacognitive awareness.Learners develop a deeper understanding of their learning processes, including theirlearning styles, preferences, and strategies through self-assessment. This heightened self-awareness enables students to make more informed choices about their learning methods,adapt their approaches as needed, and become more self-directed in their learning.Therefore, it is possible to conclude that self-assessment is to optimize students’ learningand enhance student- centered learning in the classroom.

However, the current understanding of teaching and learning writing as a skill ofclassroom practice through self-assessment in Vietnam at the tertiary leveliss o m e w h a t

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limited in the existing literature. There is a lack of comprehensive insights into theperceptions, practices, and challenges that Vietnamese EFL students face when engagingin self-assessment in writing skill. This current knowledge gap highlights the need forfurther research in this area. In addition, the specific population gap of Vietnamese EFLtertiary students has been overlooked in many studies examining self- assessment inlearning writing. This gap emphasizes the importance of investigating the role of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiarylevel. Thirdly, there is a practical knowledge gap concerning the implementation andapplication of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing as a classroom practicewithin a specific context of higher education in Vietnam. While the theoreticalunderpinnings and potential benefits of self-assessment are acknowledged in the literature,there is a lack of practical guidance and evidence-based strategies for effectivelyintegrating self-assessment practices into the writing curriculum. Therefore, this researchaims to address these gaps by conducting an in-depth investigation into the current state ofteaching and learning writing, with a particular focus on self- assessment. By doing so,this study intends to contribute to the existing knowledge by providing valuable insightsand a deeper understanding of the use of self-assessment in the context of teaching andlearning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

<b>1.3. Aims and researchquestions</b>

The primary focus of this study is to examine the perceptions, practices, and challengesencountered by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' self-assessment in writing skill. Withinthe domain of students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill, the study aims togain valuable insights into EFL students' perspectives and attitudes toward self-assessment in learning writing as a skill. The research objective is firstly to understand theoverall perceptions of EFL students' self-assessment in their writing skill. In the samevein, the study seeks to investigate students' perceptions of self- efficacy and theperceived benefits of self-assessment in writing skill. Meanwhile, the research also delvesinto students' self-assessment practices, exploring both reported practices and actualengagement of tertiary students’ self-assessment in learning writing. The ultimate researchobjective is to explore the challenges encounteredbyEFL students' self-assessment whilelearning writing, with a particular focus on understanding their real engagement in theself-assessment process. To achieve these aims, the study addresses three specificresearchquestions:

1. What are Vietnamese EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writingskill?2. How do Vietnamese EFL students practice self-assessment when learningwriting?

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3. What are the challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL students in self-assessmentin writing skill?

By investigating these research questions, the study seeks to provide a comprehensiveunderstanding of how Vietnamese EFL tertiary students perceive, practice, and encounterself-assessment in learning writing as a skill. The findings of this research can enrich theexisting knowledge base and inform educational practices, curriculum development, andinstructional strategies in the teaching and learning of writing as a productive skill forVietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

<b>1.4. Researchscope</b>

This study defines its scope as an investigation into the perceptions, practices, andchallenges related to self-assessment in the process of learning English writing amongVietnamese EFL tertiary students. The research was conducted over a six-month period attwo universities in the southern region of Vietnam. The participants exclusivelycomprised second-year students majoring in English who volunteered to participate in thisresearch.

The research narrows its focus by employing cognitive and constructivist theories,metacognition theory, and reflection theory as the theoretical background for self-assessment, emphasizing autonomous and self-regulated learning in the context ofwriting. Additionally, it utilizes a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitativeand qualitative approaches in two stages. In the first stage, the study administered aquestionnaire to a large number of EFL students and conducted eight focus-groupinterviews. During the empirical stage, an 8-week project was conducted with a group ofsecond-year students who were enrolled in an online writing course designed to enhancetheir writing skill. These students were assigned tasks that included writing essays, usingself-assessment checklist to self-assess their papers and revising them, and finallycompleting a questionnaire and reflectivejournals.

The study specifically aimed to gain insights into Vietnamese EFL tertiary students'perceptions, practices, and challenges associated with self-assessment in the context oflearning writing.

<b>1.5. Significance of theresearch</b>

This research bears notable significance in the field of English language education withinhigher education in Vietnam, particularly regarding students’ perceptions, practices, andchallenges of self-assessment in learning English writing. The findings of this study canprovide insights into the current state of English writing instruction at Vietnameseuniversities, which can further inform higher education strategies for

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English language teaching, program development, teaching methodologies, and relatedconditions pertinent to English writing instruction.

Firstly, investigating the perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment inlearning writing among Vietnamese EFL students helps bridge gaps in the existingliterature, such as knowledge, population, empirical, and methodology gaps. In thespecific context of higher education and writing skill, there has been limited attentiongiven to self-assessment within Vietnamese university settings. Therefore, this study canadd to the body of knowledge by shedding light on this crucial aspect of learning writingas a skill throughself-assessment.

Secondly, the study's methodology, derived from a combination of cognitive andconstructivist theories, metacognitive theory, and reflection theories, along with theintegration of quantitative and qualitative methods, contributes to the advancement ofresearch methodologies in the field. Additionally, the use of multiple data collection tools(questionnaires, interviews, self-assessment checklists, reflective journals, and students'papers) enables the gathering of diverse data types, fostering a comprehensive anddetailed understanding of self-assessment in learning writing among Vietnamese EFLstudents. This methodological contribution can inspire future research endeavours andserve as a reference for other researchers investigating similar topics.

The findings of this research carry practical implications for English writing lecturers,curriculum developers, and policymakers. By gaining insight into how EFL studentsperceive and engage in self-assessment in English writing, educators can tailor moreeffective instructional strategies and assessment practices to improve students' writingskill. Regarding students' actual perceptions of self-assessment, English writinginstructors can guide students' understanding in the correct direction while also refiningtheir own teaching approaches. Besides, in terms of students' reflective practices of self-assessment in writing skill, both English lecturers and students at Vietnamese universitiescan recognize these practices as relevant issues requiring scientific solutions to enhancethe effectiveness of writinginstruction.

Finally, concerning the research results on students’ challenges of self-assessment inEnglish writing skill, writing lecturers responsible for English teaching at Vietnameseuniversities can classify these challenges into at least two groups: negative challenges thatneed to be overcome and positive ones that require redirection or improvement in betterways. By examining the challenges faced by Vietnamese EFL students in the self-assessment process, lecturers can inform support mechanisms and interventions to addressthese issues. Students can benefit from a better understanding of the challenges of self-assessment, enabling them to becomemore self-directed

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learners and take ownership of their writing development.

<b>1.6. Organization of thestudy</b>

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current study, including the research background,research rationale, research questions, research aims, scope, and significance of the study.It sets the stage for the entire research project and outlines the key aspects that will beexplored.

Chapter 2 presents a critical thematic review of relevant literature. It examines theoreticalbackground of self-assessment in learning writing and explores theories of assessmentrelated to self-assessment. This chapter also identifies research gaps in previous studies onself-assessment issues, highlighting the need for further investigation.

Chapter 3 focuses on the research methodologies employed in this study. It discusses theresearch approaches and research design used to gather data and address the researchquestions. The chapter describes the research contexts, sites, participants, and the role ofthe researcher. Moreover, it presents the instruments for data collection and data analysis,while addressing ethical considerations, reliability, and validity issues.

Chapter 4 reports and discusses the findings of the study. It presents the results of the datacollected on students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learningwriting. The chapter providesananalysis of the data and engages in a thorough discussionof the findings, highlighting key patterns, themes, and implications.

Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study and provides implications for the fieldof self-assessment in English language education. It highlights the contributions of theresearch and discusses potential directions for future research in this area. The chapterconcludes the study by bringing together the main insights and offering a closingreflection on the overall researchendeavor.

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<b>CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW</b>

<i>This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundationsandrelevant concepts related to self-assessment. It begins by examining theories ofcognition and constructivism, metacognition, and reflection, highlighting theirsignificance in understanding the self-assessment process. The discussion then centersaround the purposes and key characteristics of self-assessment, particularly aboutdifferent types of assessment commonly used in educational contexts. To contextualizethe current research, previous studies in the field are thoroughly examined, identifyinggaps in the existing literature that this study aims to address. Building upon the insightsfrom prior research, this chapter sets the foundation for the subsequent investigationinto Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill.</i>

<b>2.1. Theoreticalbackground</b>

This section is a theoretical review that evaluates and synthesizes theories, models, andconcepts serving as the foundation for self-assessment. The cognitive and constructivisttheories, reflection theory, and metacognition theory converge on key aspects that arecrucial in students' self-assessment in learning writing. The significance of these theorieslies in their shared emphasis on the active participation, interpretation, reflection, andmetacognitive awareness involved in the process of self-assessment.Byintegrating thesetheoretical perspectives, the researcher can establish an approach to self-assessment inlearning writing as a skill, empowering students to assume ownership of theirwritingdevelopment.

<b>2.1.1. Cognitive and constructivisttheories</b>

Cognitive and constructivist theories have significantly influenced the educational field,shedding light on how learners construct knowledge. These theories highlight the crucialroles of both the writing process and self-assessment, emphasizing learners' activeengagement in knowledge construction and the importance of comprehending andbuilding knowledge in theseprocesses.

Cognitive theory, a fundamental concept in understanding learning processes, plays apivotal role in the writing process. According to Piaget (1985), learners actively constructknowledge through their experiences, necessitating their active involvement in thedevelopment of understanding. This principle extends to the process of writing, wherestudents must draw upon their existing knowledge, skills, and experiences, activelyengaging in the construction of their writtenwork.

Likewise, this active knowledge construction is evident in Flower and Hayes'

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(1981, p.370) writing process model, where cognitive theory underpins specificcomponents: the planning process, the translating component, and the review element. Inthe planning stage, writers engage in mental activities, organizing ideas, and setting goals.Here, the writers actively structure their thoughts and plan the composition, reflectingcognitive theory's emphasis on individual knowledge construction. Writers utilizecognitive strategies, leveraging their existing knowledge to arrange ideas coherently. Inthe process of translating component, cognitive theory highlights that mentalrepresentations are translated the ideas into various forms in written language. In thisstage, the writers transform their organized thoughts into written words such as selectingappropriate vocabulary, syntax, and composition. This process mirrors cognitive theory'sfocus on the transformation of mental constructs into external expressions, highlightingthe cognitive processes inherent in written expression. Finally, within the context of thewriting process, cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of reviewing and revisingwritten work. It suggests that writers engage in metacognitive processes, such as self-assessment and error detection, to refine their writing. In other words, the writers self-assess their drafts, identify areas for improvement, and make revisions basedonreflections.

In another view on the process of the review element, cognitive theory places significantemphasis on metacognition, which involves thinking about one's thinking processes(Dewey,1933). This principle finds resonance in the review element of Flower and Hayes'writing model, which encompasses reviewing, evaluating, and revising written work.Writers engage in metacognitive processes by critically evaluating their work, identifyingerrors, and making revisions. Through this process, students can understand the benefitsof each step in the process of review element in their work. This aligns seamlessly withcognitive theory's emphasis on metacognition and self-assessment. Writers activelymonitor and adjust their cognitive processes, contemplating their writing strategies andapplying revisions based on their evaluation. Besides, self-assessment in learning writingclosely aligns with Piaget's (1985) view, allowing students to take an active role inevaluating their progress and constructing their understanding of their writing skill.Through self-assessment, students engage in critical reflection, identifying strengths andweaknesses in writing and making informed decisions for improvement. Thus, self-assessment becomes a potent tool for students to construct knowledge actively and deepentheir comprehension of writingskill.

In addition to the theory of cognition, constructivist theory significantly influences thewriting process and self-assessment by emphasizing active knowledge construction andpersonal meaning-making. As highlighted by Dewey (1933) and Vygotsky (1978),constructivist theory posits that learners construct knowledgethrough social interactionsand meaningful experiences within their learning environment.Inthewriting process,

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learners actively construct meaningas theymakeinformed decisions, establish connectionsbetween ideas,andcreateacoherent composition. This dynamic process mirrorstheactiveknowledgeconstruction centraltoconstructivisttheory.Furthermore, Piaget (1985)emphasizedthatlearnerscreatepersonalmeaningbyintegratingnewinformationwiththeir existingknowledge. Students drawupontheir prior knowledgeandexperiencestocomprehendthewritingtask, infusing their compositions with individual perspectives.Thisapproach aligns withconstructivist principles, emphasizingthesignificanceofindividual meaning-making.

Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) underscored theeffectiveness of learning within a learner's ZPD. In the writing process, teachers canfacilitate learning by providing scaffolding, such as self-assessment checklists, to helpstudents enhance their writing skill and self-assessment ability. This is optimized whenindividuals are actively engaged in tasks just beyond their current capabilities.

Self-assessment is integral to the writing process, prompting writers to reflect on theirchoices and improve their communication skills. Through self-assessment, writersconstruct their understanding of their work, exploring both their strengths andweaknesses. Vygotsky's (1978) ideas support the integration of self-assessment in writingeducation, emphasizing its pivotal role in fostering independent learning. Additionally,constructivism advocates for student autonomy, encouraging individual expression andcreativity, thereby enhancing students' writing skills (Mahmud, 2013). Mahmud's workhighlights the significance of integrating learners’ prior knowledge with new informationto enrich their learningoutcomes.

However, it is important to note that cognitive and constructivist theories may havelimitations in understanding writing self-assessment, especially within specific contextslike Vietnam's higher education. Socio-cultural and contextual factors, which may extendbeyond individual cognitive processes, influence self-assessment practices. The practicalimplementation of self-assessment strategies can be intricate, demanding carefulscaffolding and guidance from instructors. Addressing these limitations is crucial in bothresearch and instructional design, particularly in a specific educational context suchasVietnam.

<b>2.1.2. Metacognitiontheory</b>

Metacognition theory, extensively explored in psychological and educational literature,refers to learners' ability to monitor, assess, and regulate cognitive strategiestoimprovetheir performance (Flavell, 1979; Lee&Mak, 2018). These strategies involve consciouscontrolovercognitive processes, including self-assessing comprehension, estimating self-efficacy, organizing tasks, managing time,andtransitioning between

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learning activities (McMillan&Hearn, 2008).Inthe contextof EFLwriting,theseprocessesareessentialforstudentstoengageinself-assessment. This includes monitoringtheir understandingofwriting prompts, estimatingtaskcomprehension, setting writingobjectives,andmanagingthevarious phasesof thewriting process (e.g., planning, drafting,revising,andediting). Consciously controlling these cognitive processesempowersstudentstoactively self-assess their writing,identifyspecificstrengthsandweaknesses, and enhance their work, thus taking ownershipoftheirlearning.Metacognition theory carries profound implications for education, particularly in students'self-assessment. It underscores the importance of teaching students to reflect on theirthinking and develop metacognitive strategies for learning (Flavell, 1979; Lee & Mak,2018). Encouraging students to engage in self-assessment and reflect on their thinkingaligns with metacognition's principles of monitoring and regulating cognitive processes.Self-assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning, define their learninggoals, and monitor their progress toward those objectives, aligning with metacognition'semphasis on self-regulated learning and activities such as planning, monitoring, and self-assessment.

Remarkably, metacognitive knowledge pertains to learners' cognitive processes andfactors influencing learning, including motivation, beliefs, and self-efficacy (Flavell,1979; Schunk, 2012; Wenden, 1998). Among these factors, self-efficacy significantlyinfluences students' perceptions of self-assessment. It encompasses their beliefs regardingtheir overall capacity, knowledge, and ability to accurately assess their skills. For instance,

<i>students might express their confidence by saying,"Iassume that Ican..." or "I think I cando well in...”or “I think my strengthsare...".</i>

On the other hand, metacognitive strategies refer to students' abilities to regulate cognitiveprocesses, including monitoring, adjusting, reflecting, and contemplating the self-assessment process (Zhang, 2010). Essentially, students use metacognitive strategies tomonitor and self-assess their learning objectives. They focus on their learning goals anddevelop strategies relevant to their self-assessment activities (Suskie, 2018). By engagingin these practices, students gain a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and values

<i>of assessment. For example, they might express, "I find thatlearning with assessment allows me to..." or "I realize that self-assessmentencourages me to...".</i>

self-Consequently, metacognitive strategies play a critical role in helping learners comprehendthe advantages and significance of learning through self- assessment, as they utilize theirstrategic knowledge to attain cognitive objectives in their learning activities.

Moreover, metacognition can help students become effective problem-solvers through aself-assessment process (Lee & Mak, 2018; Schunk, 2012). Self-assessment

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encourages students to identify their ability, analyze their learning strategies, and makenecessary adjustments. This enhances their understanding of the subject matter and equipsthem with skills to address complex problems and adapt their learning approaches.Fostering metacognitive strategies through self-assessment prepares students for lifelonglearning.

In conclusion, metacognition significantly contributes to learners' understanding of thebenefits, values, and self-efficacy associated with self-assessment. Metacognitivestrategies empower students to think about their learning processes, make informedassessments, and enhance their writing skill. By being metacognitively aware, studentscan become more skillful writers and actively contribute to their learning anddevelopment.

<b>2.1.3. Reflection theory</b>

In learning writing, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' self- assessment.Engaging in reflective practices, students can deepen their understanding, develop criticalthinking skills, and improve their writing abilities.

Reflection theory, as emphasized by Dewey’s (1933) work, underscores the significanceof thoughtful consideration, problem-solving, and the development of one's thinking.Dewey's perspective on reflection theory aligns seamlessly with the process of self-assessment in learning writing. This implies that students engage in thoughtfulconsideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their work andmake informed decisions about their writing strategies through reflection. For instance,when focusing on problem-solving, students are able to identify specific challenges theyencounter during the writing process and develop strategies to address them. Moreover,reflection theory emphasizes the growth of learners’ thinking, encouraging students toself-assess their writing from multiple perspectives and consider alternative approaches.This reflective practice not only enhances students' writing skill but also cultivates theirability to engage in metacognition, enabling them to monitor, self-assess, and adjust theirwriting strategies based on their self- assessment. Overall, reflection theory plays afundamental role in students' self- assessment in learning writing, empowering them tobecome active participants in their learningprocess.

Emphasizing the role of self-assessment in the writing classroom, Dewey (1933) arguedthat reflection cultivates students' perception of the value of interpersonal communicationin the learning process. Through self-assessment, for example, students engage in criticalthinking about their writing, considering feedback from peers and teachers. This activeengagement with others fosters collaboration, peer learning, and the exchange of ideas.Students develop an understanding that their writing skills can be

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enriched through diverse perspectives and constructive dialogue.

Moreover, reflecting on their essays and the works of others, students develop anappreciation for the social nature of learning, recognizing that knowledge is co-constructed through interactions with peers and teachers. In addition to promoting socialinteractions, self-assessment in the writing classroom also nurtures students' sense ofresponsibility for their own learning. Through reflection, studentstakeownership of theirwriting process, as they self-assess their strengths and areas for improvement. Self-assessment prompts students to set specific goals, monitor their progress, and makeadjustments accordingly. Actively engaging in self-assessment, students become aware oftheir own learning needs and take responsibility for seeking appropriate strategies toenhance their writing skills. This sense of ownership fosters intrinsic motivation, self-directed learning, and a growthmindset.

Inshort, reflectiontheoryplaysasignificant roleinstudents' self-assessmentinlearning writing.RootedinDewey's perspective, reflectiontheoryencourages studentstoengageinthoughtfulconsiderationoftheir writing practices, enabling themtocriticallyanalyze their writingworkandmake informed decisions about their writing strategies. Through reflection,studentscan identifyspecific challenges, seek alternative approaches,and monitor theirprogress, ultimately fostering critical thinking skills, metacognition,andintrinsicmotivationinthewritingclassroom.Moreover, self-assessmentpromotes collaboration, peerlearning,andasenseofresponsibilityforone'sownlearning process, emphasizingthesocialnatureofknowledge constructionand empoweringstudentstobecome active participantsintheirlearning process.

<b>2.1.4. Self-assessment in autonomous and self-regulatedlearning</b>

<i><b>2.1.4.1. Definitions ofself-assessment</b></i>

On defining self-assessment, Andrade (2019) pointed out that it was surprisingly difficultto clearly define “self-assessment” because self-assessment involves various activities,like predicting students’ test results, using a rubric or checklist to diagnose students’strengths and weaknesses, writing reflective journals, and more. Each of those tasks has aunique sort of assessment and function; therefore, they may lead to confusion betweenthese forms and the concept of self-assessment. In addition, numerous terms have beenused interchangeably to describe the process of students’ assessment and reflection ontheir own learning, including notable terms such as “self- assessment”, “self-reflection”,“self-monitoring”, and “self-evaluation”. Significantly, a process of students’ self-rating,self-grading, self-testing, and self-judging can be seen as forms of self-assessment. Theseterms can occasionally create ambiguity when it comes toself-assessment.

Harris and McCann (1994) highlighted that self-assessment is the way students

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self-assess their learning process and problems and then look for ways of changing,adapting, and improving. This perspective emphasizes the idea of individualism in aprocess of learning that students themselves self-judge their learning progress andimprove in isolation. In contrast to Harris and McCann (1994), Boud (1991) argued thatself-assessment is not just an individualistic activity or a learning process of a learner, butinvolves many learners. Boud (1991, p.12) defined self-assessment as “the involvement ofstudents in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and makingjudgments about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards.” In otherwords, Boud (1991) believed the conceptualization of self- assessment involves learnerscollaborating in assessing their work during the process of learning. This collaborativeapproach aligns with the notion of autonomous learning, where students take ownership oftheir learning process and engage in self-assessment within a social context such asseeking feedback or information from a variety of sources on a regular basis.

From another perspective, Gregory et al. (2011) emphasized the importance of reflectionon performance in self-assessment processes. Their definition underscores students'reflection on the quality of their work and their assessment of its reflectivity againstexplicitly stated goals or criteria. This reflective aspect is fundamental to self- regulatedlearning, as it enables students to monitor their progress, identify areas for improvement,and revise their work accordingly.

BrownandHarris (2013, p.3) defined self-assessmentas"aprocessofthe evaluative anddescriptiveactcarriedoutbystudents regarding their tasksandabilities." This aligns withBrown's (2003) viewofself-assessmentasaprocessofself-assessment, wherein studentsevaluateandmonitor their performance against identified criteria. Zimmerman(2000)described self-assessmentasaprocessofself-observation and self-judgment,involving trackingspecific aspectsofperformance, conditions,andeffects,andjudging performance againstcriteriaorstandards. These definitions highlighttheimportanceofreflection,evaluation,andjudgmentinself-assessment processes.

Notably, Andrade and Du (2007, p.3) defined self-assessment as

"a process of formative assessment during which students reflect on andevaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree towhich they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths andweakness in their work, and revise."

This definition is in line with the principles of learner-centered education. According toAndrade and Du's definition, self-assessment embodies the learner- centered approach byplacing the learner at the center of the formative assessment process. It empowers studentsto reflect on the quality of their work, assess their

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progress, and identify areas for improvement based on their own understanding of thegoals and criteria. Students become active participants in their own learning, fostering asense of autonomy, self-perception, and metacognitive skills when engaging in self-assessment. This supports the development of lifelong learners who can self-regulate,adapt, and continuously improve their knowledge and skills.

In summary, the aforementioned definitions and concepts of self-assessment underscoredthe significance of autonomous and self-regulated learning. The statements provided bydifferent authors emphasized the involvement of reflection, evaluation, judgment, andgoal-oriented assessment within self-assessment processes. Engaging in self-assessment,students become active participants in their learning process, seeking feedback, andmaking adjustments to improve their learning.

<i><b>2.1.4.2. Autonomous languagelearning</b></i>

The concept of autonomous learning, emphasizing self-directed learning, has gainedsignificant attention in educational contexts. Scholars have stressed the pivotal role ofself-assessment in fostering autonomous learning among students. According to Benson(2009), Gardner (2000), and Smith (2018), learner-centered education equips studentswith essential skills such as self-assessment, decision-making, and problem- solving,empowering them to take control of their learning. Self-assessment promotes autonomouslearning, enabling students to actively assess their progress, reflect on their strengths andareas for improvement, and make informed decisions about their learning strategies. Thisprocess cultivates a sense of ownership and independence, allowing students to tailor theirlearning experiences to their unique needs and goals. Through self-assessment, learnersdevelop metacognitive awareness, enhancing their ability to monitor their progress andmake necessary adjustments.

The relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy has been additionallyemphasized by Gardner (2000) and Holec (1981). Autonomous learners, as Gardnerargued, are responsible for monitoring their progress, with self-assessment playing apivotal role in reflection and progress monitoring. Holec similarly highlighted that self-assessment is crucial for learners to reflect on their progress and monitor theirdevelopment. Both perspectives underscore that self-assessment empowers students tocritically assess their performance, identify areas for improvement, and make necessaryadjustments, fostering self-awareness, metacognitive skills, and a deeper understanding ofthe learning process.

Additionally, Gholami (2016) further delved into the advantages of self- assessment forindependent learners, considering it a self-monitoring tool providing instant feedback onlanguage proficiency and learning strategy effectiveness. Gardner (2010) supported thisperspective, stating that self-assessment enables learners to

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personalize their learning, reflect on strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress, andengage in metacognitive processes. These insights highlight the benefits of self-assessment in promoting learner autonomy by enabling personalized learning andmetacognitive engagement.

Overall, the close relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy is evident intheir shared focus on learner-centeredness and independent learning. Benson (2009) andGardner (2000) emphasized the learner-centered nature of both concepts, highlighting theactive role of students in their learning process. This learner-centered approachcontributes to the development of lifelong learning skills as learners become moreindependent and self-directed in their educational journey.

<i><b>2.1.4.3. Self-regulated learning</b></i>

Pintrich (2000) defined self-regulated learning as the process where students establishobjectives for their learning and actively monitor, adjust, and manage their thoughts,motivation, and actions to achieve these objectives. Pintrich’s definition is stronglysupported by contemporary educational psychology and empirical research, particularlywithin cognitive theory and social constructivism. Self-regulated learning underscores theactive involvement of learners in their educational process, which includes goal setting,metacognition, motivation, and adaptable strategies. Research, including studies byPanadero et al. (2016) and Zimmerman and Schunk (2011), consistently reveals a positivecorrelation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement. In essence,Pintrich's definition encapsulates the core elements of self- regulated learning,highlighting the pivotal role of active engagement and goal-oriented metacognition inshaping learning outcomes.

Significant conceptual and practical overlap exists between assessment and regulated learning within educational literature. Boud (2013) emphasized that both self-assessment and self-regulated learning revolve around how students perceive the qualityof their work during the learning process. Brown (2003) further solidified the alignmentby underlining their shared goal of encouraging students to critically assess their progress.Essentially, these perspectives underscore that both self-assessment and self-regulatedlearning foster metacognitive skills, enabling students to reflect on their strengths andweaknesses. This interconnection highlights their collective focus on student engagement,reflection, and assessment of the learning process.

self-Furthermore, the literature consistently highlights self-assessment as a pivotal componentof self-regulated learning. Andrade and Brookhart (2016) offered evidence of the linkbetween self-assessment and learning, suggesting that self-regulated learners setobjectives, monitor their progress, and adapt strategies to achieve their goals. This alignswith Zimmerman and Schunk's (2004) viewpoint that self-assessment serves asa

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<b>FORETHOUGHTTask analysis</b>

Goal settingStrategic planning

<b>Self-motivation beliefs</b>

Outcome expectationsIntrinsic value

Goal orientation

Self-evaluationCasual attribution

Self-satisfaction /affectAdaptive-defensive

Attention focusingTask strategies

The correlation between self-assessment and Zimmerman's (2013) three-phase model isevident in its framework for understanding self-assessment. This model, rooted in socialconstruction and reflection theory, comprises three distinct phases within the self-regulation cycle: Forethought, Performance or Volitional Control, and Self-Reflection.The current study adopts Zimmerman's self-regulated learning model (Figure 2.1),showcasing the integration of these three cyclical phases and emphasizing self-assessment's pivotal role in each stage of the learningprocess.

<i><b>Figure.2.1.Cyclical phases of self-regulated learning. Adapted from Zimmerman (2013, </b></i>

The Forethought phase, the initial stage of self-regulated learning, plays a crucial role inshaping students' approach to a task, involving task analysis and self-motivation beliefs.During this phase, students analyze the task, set goals, and formulate a plan, taking intoaccount task requirements, standards, and success strategies. Self-regulated studentsengage in self-assessment, identifying areas for improvement and enhancing theirlearning. Alongside task analysis, students' self-motivation beliefs are pivotal in the

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self-regulated process, emphasizing their perception of self-efficacy, outcomeexpectations, intrinsic value, and goal orientation. Fostering a positive perception of self-efficacy in this phase is essential for promoting self-assessment and facilitating students'learning development.

The Performance or Volitional Control phase, the second stage of self-regulated learning,centers on students' self-control and self-observation. In this phase, students exercise self-control through techniques such as self-instruction, imagery, attention focusing, and taskstrategies. These strategies regulate cognitive and behavioral processes, enabling focusedlearning and effective management. Self-observation is equally important, involvingactivities like self-recording and self-experimentation. Students gain valuable insights intotheir learning process, identifying areas for improvement by monitoring their progress andperformance. This phase occurs during the learning process, allowing students to activelyengage in self-monitoring and employ effective learning management strategies,optimizing performance and learning outcomes.

The Self-Reflection phase, the third stage of regulated learning, involves judgment and self-reaction. Students evaluate their task performance, attributing successor failure and reacting emotionally. Self-judgment entails critical self- evaluation andcausal attribution analysis. Self-reaction encompasses emotional and affective responses,alongside the adoption of adaptive or defensive strategies based on performance. Duringthis phase, students reflect on factors that influenced their task approach, contemplatinghow to enhance future performance. Importantly, thisself-reflection phase serves as abridge back to the Forethought phase, where insights inform goal-setting, planning, andstrategies for subsequent learningendeavors.

self-Zimmerman's (2013) self-regulated learning model encompasses three distinct phasesintegral to students' self-assessment perceptions and practices. The Forethought phaseinitiates the learning process, with students analyzing tasks and assessing their self-efficacy, influencing motivation and perception. The Performance or Volitional Controlphase emphasizes self-control and self-observation, employing strategies for focusedlearning and effective management. Self-observation allows for progress monitoring andadjustments. Finally, the Self-Reflection phase involves self-judgment and self-reaction,encouraging critical evaluation and emotional response. This phase serves as a connectionto the Forethought phase, enabling students to refine goals, plans, and strategies.Together, these phases underscore the importance of self- assessment in self-regulatedlearning, fostering student growth andsuccess.

<b>2.2. Assessment in foreign languageeducation</b>

This section provides an integrative review of assessment methods and their

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significance in foreign language education, specifically exploring various aspects ofassessment within the context of higher education. Formative assessment, which includesteacher assessment, self-assessment as a primary strategy, and peer assessment, is a keyfocus. It also reviews the interconnections between self- assessment, peer assessment, andteacher assessment. Additionally, the section addresses the role of self-assessment insummative assessment, demonstrating how it can serve as a valuable tool for evaluatingstudent performance at the end of a learning period.

<b>2.2.1. Formativeassessment</b>

<i><b>2.2.1.1. Teacherassessment</b></i>

Teacher assessment or feedback plays a critical role in formative assessment practices,where the focus is on improving students' learning process. The significance of teacherfeedback in classroom assessments highlights its value in providing informative insights,enhancing student learning, promoting learner autonomy, and developing students’ self-assessment skills.

In contrast to the traditional approach that primarily relies on using grades as feedbackindicators of students’ achievement, a significant shift has focussed towards process-related assessment, which involves providing direct feedback to students for self-correction. This change recognizes the importance of ongoing assessment and feedback insupporting student learning. In this context, the role of teacher feedback has become vital(Andrade, 2013; Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017). Providing constructive feedback,teachers act as constructivists, igniting students' active engagement in the learning processand unlocking the full potential of assessments to improve students’ learning. Teacherfeedback in formative assessment aligns with research that highlighted the valuable roleof constructive feedback in promoting students’ growth and development (Lee, 2017). Itempowers teachers to guide students effectively, providing them with specific guidanceand actionable suggestions for improvement. Ultimately, the integration of formativefeedback maximizes the potential of assessments to foster continuous learning and drivepositive educational development.

Teacher feedbackholdssignificant valueas itservesas aninformation-seekingprocessthatenhances students' learning opportunities (Andrade&Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017).Teachers often createalearning environment where students canactivelyengage with theirlearningbyoffering constructive feedbackandguidance.Thisfeedback-oriented approachallows studentstoreceive specific insightsintotheir learning process, enabling themtomakenecessary adjustmentsandimprovements.Itmeans that these valuable learning opportunitiessupport students' overall growth and development.Thevalueofteacher

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feedbackinenhancing students' learning opportunities liesin its ability toprovide targetedguidanceandpromote continuous improvement, fosteringamore effectiveandmeaningfullearning experience.

Moreover, teacher assessment plays a central role in formative assessment, serving thedual purpose of facilitating learning improvement and fostering learnerautonomy(Andrade&Cizek, 2010; Harlen&Gardner,2010;Lee, 2017). Throughtheprovisionoffeedback,teacherscanprovide valuable insightsandguidancetotheir students, enablingthem toidentifyareasforimprovementandmake necessary adjustmentsintheir learning process. Thisfeedback-oriented approachnotonlypromotes learning improvementbutalso empowersstudentsto takeownershipoftheir learning process.Insuchadynamic environment, studentsoften develop metacognitive skills, reflectontheir learning strategies,andbecome more self-regulated learners. Teacher feedback thusacts asacatalystforboth learning

studentstotakeanactiveroleintheir educationandbecome more independent and directedintheirlearning.

Finally, teacher assessment plays an important role in equipping students with assessment skills and empowering them to become self-regulated learners. As Andradeand Cizek (2010) pointed out that teacher feedback promotes students' active engagementin the learning process and maximizes the potential of assessment for improving learning.This perspective highlights the potential value of teacher feedback in promoting studentinvolvement and enhancing learning. Teachers guide their students toward achieving theirlearning goals by providing targeted feedback. This aligns with Lee's (2017) view thatteacher feedback is an information-seeking process that optimizes students' learningopportunities. The act of receiving feedback from teachers enables students to reflect ontheir own performance, identify areas of improvement, and develop self-assessment skills.It is through this iterative process of feedback and reflection that students become moreself-regulated in their learning. Lee (2017) and Brown (2003) further emphasized thetransformative power of teacher feedback, stating that it empowers students to becomeautonomous learners. Internalizing the feedback received, students become more self-directed and take responsibility for their own learning process. The values of teacherassessment, therefore, extend beyond academic achievement and contribute to the holisticdevelopment of students as self-regulated learners capable of lifelonglearning.

<i><b>self-2.2.1.2. Self-assessment as a key strategy of formative assessment</b></i>

Inrecentyears,asignificant shifthas occurredinclassroom assessment practiceswithinhighereducation,placingagrowingemphasisonformative assessment. Formativeassessmentisgloballyrecognizedasapotent methodforevaluatingtheeffectivenessof

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teachingandlearning(Andrade&Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011;Lee, 2017). Withintheframeworkofformative assessment, self-assessmentassumesacrucialroleinpromoting studentengagement, metacognition,andself-regulated learning.

Andrade and Brown (2016), along with Brown and Harris (2013), emphasized theimportance of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it empowersstudents to actively monitor and reflect on their own learning progress. This recognitionunderscores the empowering nature of self-assessment, allowing students to exercisegreater control over their learning and take responsibility for their academic growth. As aresult, students develop a deeper self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses,thereby facilitating purposeful and personalized learning experiences. Similarly, Bennett(2011) and Brookhart (2011) acknowledged the significance of self-assessment withinformative assessment, affirming that it cultivates metacognitive abilities and enhancesstudents' perceptions of their own learning process. This perspective aligns with the ideathat self-assessment fosters metacognition, enabling students to reflect on their learningapproaches, identify areas requiring enhancement, and make appropriate adaptations.Engaging in the self-assessment process nurtures students' self-perception and instills asense of responsibility for their learningtrajectory.

Butler (2016) and Race (2020) also underscored the role of self-assessment in formativeassessment, asserting that it nurtures students' autonomy and accountability for theirlearning. This perspective highlights the transformative impact ofself-assessment,empowering students to become self-regulated learners. Self-assessment empowersstudents to assume control of their learning by setting goals, monitoring progress, andmaking informed decisions to enhance their learning outcomes. Moreover, the role of self-assessment in formative assessment finds further support from Irons (2008) and Parr andTimperley (2010), who suggested that self-assessment maximizes the potential ofclassroom assessment to enhance students' learning. Self- assessment activities encouragestudents to actively engage with content, reflect on their learning, and develop a deeperunderstanding of their capabilities and growth areas. This process contributes to a morestudent-centered and learner-driven educational approach.

In short, the integration of formative assessment practices in higher education highlightsthe crucial role of self-assessment in promoting student engagement, metacognition, andself-regulated learning. Studies by Andrade, Brookhart, and Butler collectively emphasizethat self-assessment empowers students to monitor progress, reflect on learning, and takeownership of their academic journey, fostering metacognitive abilities and autonomy.This enhances students' perceptions of their learning process and supports a more student-centered educational paradigm.

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<i><b>2.2.1.3. Peerassessment</b></i>

Peer assessment has emerged as a valuable strategy within formative assessment,providing students with feedback and promoting active engagement in the learningprocess. Also known as peer feedback, peer evaluation, or peer editing, it holds immensevalue and plays a pivotal role in enhancing students' learning and self- assessment skills.Peer assessment is widely acknowledged as a potent source for enriching students'learning experiences and fostering autonomy and self-regulation. This perspective issubstantiated by prominent researchers in the field (Boud, 2013; Brown, 2003; Lee, 2017;Race, 2011; Topping, 2013) who have explored the impact of peer assessment on studentdevelopment. Through peer assessment, students actively participate in the evaluation andfeedback process, leading to a deeper grasp of the subject matter. Assessing their peers'work, students are exposed to diverse perspectives and alternative approaches, whichbroadens their knowledge base and hones their critical thinking skills. Moreover, peerassessment empowers students to take charge of their learning by encouraging them to beactive contributors to the assessment process. Providing constructive feedback to theirpeers enhances students' ability to self-assess their own work and identify areas forimprovement. This self-assessment process contributes to their growth as independentlearners, as they become proficient in setting goals, monitoring their progress, andassuming responsibility for their learning process. Ultimately, peer assessment emerges asa potent tool that enhances students' learning processes while nurturing autonomy andself-regulation skills.

Participation in peer assessment offers compelling justifications for its value ineducational settings. Firstly, it refines students' judgment and self-assessment skills, asemphasized by Topping (2013). Critically assessing their peers' work deepens students'understanding of assessment criteria and standards, refining their ability to make informedjudgments about their own work's quality and effectiveness. This assessment processencourages self-perception and reflection, enabling students to more accurately pinpointtheir strengths and areas for improvement. Secondly, engaging in peer assessmentmotivates students to take an active role in the group work process. This approachencourages them to participate actively in the learning community, contributing to acollective understanding of the subject matter. This collaborative approach fostersmeaningful interactions and discussions among peers, resulting in heightenedcomprehension and the exchange of diverse perspectives. Lastly, peer assessmentpromotes students' responsibility for their own learning. The assessment process,combined with providing feedback to peers, encourages students to assume ownershipover their progress and growth. They develop a sense of accountability for their learningjourney and take on the task of monitoring and enhancing their own work.

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It's important to note that peer assessment serves not only as a tool for assessing learningbut also as a valuable means of facilitating formative assessment and promoting students'self-assessment abilities, as highlighted by Topping(2013).

<i><b>2.2.1.4. Relationship among self-, peer, and teacherassessment</b></i>

In contemporary educational contexts, self-, peer-, and teacher assessments have emergedas essential components of formative assessment practices. While each approach hasdistinct characteristics, they share common objectives of improving student learning andpromoting autonomy. This review aims to elucidate the relationship among theseassessment methods, emphasizing their role in developing self-regulated andautonomouslearners.

The interconnectedness of self-assessment, teacher assessment, and peer assessment playsa vital role in fostering self-regulated and autonomous learning. According to Lee (2017),self-assessment enables students to reflect on their learning process, identify areas forimprovement, and take control of their learning process. This aligns with the idea thatself-assessment empowers learners to assume ownership of their learning. Similarly,Andrade (2013) emphasized the significance of teacher assessment in formativeassessment, noting that teachers, through specific guidance and actionable suggestions,facilitate students' active engagement and responsibility for their learning. This feedback-oriented approach enhances metacognitive skills and encourages self-reflection.Additionally, Nielsen (2011) and Topping (2013) highlighted the importance of peerassessment, which promotes active participation, critical thinking, and exposure to diverseperspectives, ultimately fostering deeper comprehension. Peer assessment also helpsstudents develop self-assessment skillsasthey evaluate the quality of their own work incomparison to their peers. Integrating these assessment methods collectively maximizestheir impact on self-regulated and autonomous learning, creating a supportive andempowering learning environment for students.

Feedback from teachers and peers can help students find appropriate solutions forchallenges in self-assessment practices. This is supported by research in the field. Earl(2003) emphasized the role of formative feedback from both teachers and peers in guidingstudents toward effective self-assessment. This feedback provides valuable insights andsuggestions that help students overcome challenges and improve their self- assessmentpractices. Additionally, Race (2020) highlighted the importance of student- centeredlearning, where feedback from multiple sources contributes to a comprehensiveunderstanding of self-assessment. Topping (2013) and Weigle (2009) further supportedthe idea that formative feedback fosters problem-solving skills in self- assessment byexposing students to alternative strategies and successfulexamples.

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Overall, the interconnectedness of these assessment approaches maximizes their impacton student learning, facilitating the development of self-regulated and autonomouslearners. This can help students navigate challenges and find appropriate solutions in theirself-assessment practices.

<b>2.2.2. Self-assessment for summativepurposes</b>

Summative assessment, a traditional method of evaluating students' learning outcomes,has long been a fundamental element of educational systems worldwide (Brown & Harris,2013; Earl, 2003). One significant criticism of summative assessment is its focus on endresults rather than the learning process itself. Placing excessive importance on final gradesor scores, summative assessment often fails to capture the complete picture of a student'slearning progression. It overlooks the progress students make throughout their learningjourney and neglects to provide meaningful feedback for enhancement. This narrow focuson outcomes can foster a fixed mindset and diminish students' intrinsic motivation tolearn. For instance, in writing assignments, the main attention is often directed towardswritten outputs, tests, and feedback based on scores, both for educators and students(Brookhart, 2013; Harris & McCann, 1994; Weigle, 2009). The test results serve as proofof passing a test, semester, or course, and meeting other requirements in various contexts.This approach might lead to a situation where students are more concerned about whetherthey "passed" or "failed" an exam, rather than identifying their strengths and weaknesses.When writing assessments are conducted in this manner, students may miss out onreflecting on their learning process and assessing the quality of their work, as identifyinglimitations for improvement becomes too late, preventing them from gaining valuableexperience for future writing endeavors.

Moreover, delayed feedback from summative assessments has been identified as asignificant impediment to students' ability to enhance their work promptly. Hattie andTimperley (2007) argued that feedback is most effective when provided during thelearning process rather than after its completion. Timely feedback enables students toengage in reflection, identify areas for enhancement, and make progress. Without promptfeedback, students might struggle to learn from their mistakes and effectively developtheir skills. The significance of timely feedback lies in its role in facilitating reflection,enabling students to identify errors and misconceptions, maintaining motivation andengagement, and fostering an iterative process of improvement. When feedback isdelayed, students miss out on these opportunities, which compromises their learning andgrowth. Therefore, the provision of timely feedback is crucial for empowering students toreflect on their performance, make necessary adjustments, and enrich their overalllearning experience.

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Self-assessment, as a measurement technique, assumes a substantial role in the learningprocess for evaluating students' comprehension of their knowledge (Bhatti &Nimehchisalem, 2020; Butler & Lee, 2010). It is worth noting that self-assessment canalso function as a form of summative assessment, involving the use of scores, such asstudents' self-assigned grades or comparing their self-evaluations to their teachers'assessments (Andrade, 2019; Ashton, 2014; Babaii et al., 2016; Belachew et al., 2015).Previous studies primarily focused on comparing scores provided by students and teachersusing rubrics or checklists. Nevertheless, these studies have indicated that students tend toeither overestimate or underestimate their scores in comparison to their instructors'evaluations (Butler & Lee, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018; Sahragard & Mallahi, 2014;Yilmaz, 2017). Despite occasional disparities between teachers' and students' grades, moststudies reported that students maintain a positive view of self- assessment (Javaherbakhsh,2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018), acknowledge improvements in writing quality (Johnson& ShellyGelfand, 2013), and recognize its role in cultivating lifelong language learningskills, responsibility, and autonomy in writing (Oscarson, 2009).

<b>2.3. Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFLwriting2.3.1. Writing academicEnglish</b>

In the domain of learning to write in academic English, the skill of effective academicwriting holds paramount importance. Proficiency in academic writing extends beyondmere expression of ideas; it demands a profound comprehension of the specificconventions, structures, and language nuances that characterize academic discourse.Students who master this skill gain a competitive advantage in their studies and futurecareers. Moreover, learners recognize the significance of honing their expertise inacademic writing and underscore key elements such as essay coherence, logicalorganization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy. Additionally, the emphasis here is to delineate the stages of the writingprocess, encompassing prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing, which is indispensablefor students to refine their written work and generate high-caliber academic texts.

In academic writing, students need to delve deep into the specific conventions, structures,and language intricacies that define academic discourse. Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006)along with Oshima and Hogue (2006) underscored the significance of grasping thedistinct attributes and anticipations of academic writing. Oshima and Hogue proposed thatacademic writing entails its own set of conventions, such as a formal tone, objectivelanguage, and the utilization of citations, which students must adeptly wield toproficiently convey their ideas in an academic milieu. The adept use of

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precise language, appropriate vocabulary, and the skill to present arguments in a coherentand logical manner stand as pivotal competencies in academic writing (Davis & Liss,2006; Hamp-Lyons, 2003; Hedge, 2005). These invaluable components empower studentsto craft written pieces that adhere to the benchmarks and expectations ofacademicdiscourse.

The acquisition of proficiency in academic writing is widely recognized by learners as apivotal facet in the writing learning process. They appreciate the importance of masteringkey elements that contribute to effective academic writing, including essay coherence,logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, andsentence-level accuracy. These writing attributes are buttressed by research findings andacademic experts. Highlighting the importance of essay organization, scholars such asHamp-Lyons (2003), Oshima and Hogue (2006), and Weigle (2009) argued that a well-structured essay demonstrates coherence and unity. In such essays, every sentence andparagraph collaboratively contributes to the overall development of ideas. Moreover,Davis and Liss (2006) underscored the crucial nature of sentence-level accuracy,highlighting that precise sentence-level construction is pivotal for lucidly and effectivelyconveying ideas in academic writing. These perspectives underscore learners' recognitionand emphasis on the pivotal elements requisite for adept academic writing.

Lastly, outlining the phases of the writing process - prewriting, drafting, revising, andediting - is pivotal for students to refine their written compositions and create high-caliber academic texts. These phases proffer a systematic approach to writing, enablingstudents to nurture their ideas, structure their thoughts, and enhance the lucidity andcoherence of their writing. Researchers and educators alike acknowledge the significanceof these phases within the writing process. Underscoring the import of prewriting, Oshimaand Hogue (2006) and Weigle (2009) asserted that prewriting aids students in ideageneration, thought organization, and establishing a clear trajectory for their writing.Similarly, Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) accentuated the value of revision, noting thatrevision constitutes the keystone for transforming a draft into a polished and cohesivewritten piece. These elements underscore the indispensable role of the writing processphases in guiding students to refine their written work and fabricate top-tier academiccompositions.

<b>2.3.2. Self-assessment in EFL writingclassrooms</b>

Self-assessment holds a valuable role in EFL writing classes, providing notable benefitsand values to students' learning and writing skill development. This section willparticularly emphasize the role, benefits and values of self-assessment in EFL writingwithin higher education, highlighting its impact on writing skill and its abilityto

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empower students in terms of autonomy, responsibility, and reflection.

<i><b>2.3.2.1. Self-assessment in writingskill</b></i>

In the realm of EFL classrooms, self-assessment stands as a cornerstone for refiningwriting skill. It empowers students in multifaceted ways: firstly, by leveraging theirexisting knowledge, encompassing their understanding of writing techniques, grammarrules, and vocabulary. This involves harnessing their prior learning to enhance theirwriting prowess. Secondly, it cultivates the ability to apply effective writing strategies -methods tried and tested. Through self-assessment, students discern which strategies suitthem best, enabling them to adeptly apply these techniques in their writing tasks. Thirdly,self-assessment prompts students to meticulously analyze their writing, identifyingspecific areas such as sentence structure, coherence, or vocabulary usage that requireenhancement. This critical evaluation directs their focus to precise areas demanding morepractice and attention. Lastly, self-assessment entails active monitoring of one's learningjourney. Students continuously evaluate their progress, celebrating their improvementsand recognizing setbacks. This ongoing assessment equips them to make well-informeddecisions about their learning strategies, pinpointing areas necessitating extra effort.Crucially, this reflective process endows students with ownership of their writing abilitiesand engages them in metacognitive reflection. By delving into their writing processes,identifying strengths and weaknesses, and consistently monitoring progress, students gainprofound insights. This introspection fosters a detailed comprehension of their writingcapacities, allowing for targeted growth. As emphasized by scholars like Andrade (2010)and Butler (2018), self-assessment activities in writing are not mere exercises; they aredynamic processes wherein students actively participate, reflecting deeply on their writingskill, identifying their areas of mastery, and vigilantly tracking their learning processtowardproficiency.

The act of self-assessment always activates students' prior knowledge, enabling them todraw upon their existing understanding and skills while engaging in the writing process.By reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, students gain insights into their writingabilities and identify areas for further development, especially in increasing students'perception of their self-efficacy of their writing skill. Earl (2003) also supported that self-assessment allows students to identify what they do well and what they need to work on.This self-perception drives students to employ appropriate writing strategies that alignwith their individual needs, fostering more effective and targeted writingpractices.

Furthermore, self-assessment facilitates ongoing monitoringof thelearning process, enablingstudentstotrack their progressandmake necessary adjustments. Weigle (2009)highlightedtheimportanceofself-assessmentinwritingas ithelps students monitorand

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