Pesticide Residues in Coastal Tropical Ecosystems: Distribution, fate and effects - Chapter 14 ppt

400 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. MartinezChapter 14
Pesticide use in Cuban
agriculture, present and
prospects
Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno,
R. Hernández and K. Martinez
OVERVIEW
Geographical location and topography
With two major islands and many small keys, the Cuban archipelago is situated in
the tropical Caribbean Sea between Lat. 19°47'36" to 23°17'09"N, Long. 80°53'55"
to 84°57'54"W. It has a land mass area of 114,524 km
2
(National Geographic
Society, 1981) and the two main islands are predominantly flat. Only 21 percent
of Cuba’s land area is mountainous and this is concentrated in three areas in the
eastern, central, and western provinces. The mountain’s heights vary between 200
and nearly 2,000 meters. The three mountainous regions, covered by dense forest,
are the source of many of the watersheds and rivers of Cuba. They are economic-
ally important for the valuable timber and other useful plants, e.g. fruit trees and
medicinal shrubs, found there. Coffee and some other minor crops, e.g. banana
(small-scale production only) are planted in some areas of the mountains.
Primarily Cuba is one large savannah with the exception of a few small wetlands
covering about 4 percent of the total land mass and located almost exclusively in
the southern portion of the two main islands. The largest of these two wetlands
Ciénaga de Zapata (southwest central part of the largest island) is a protected
region because of its biodiversity. The greater part of the savannah has fertile soils
and is primarily agricultural (Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1992).
Geology
The Cuban archipelago formed at the end of the Eocene period and its present
shape was determined by tectonic plate movement. In general, the region has a
low level of seismic activity; only in the eastern portion of the main island does

sporadic seismic activity occur (Atlas Nacional de Cuba, 1970).
Climate
The Cuban climate is typical of Caribbean islands in that it is hot and humid with
only two well-defined seasons, summer and winter. In summer, the daily average
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 401
solar illumination is >8.5 h out of a total of 10–14 h of solar radiation. The
maximum solar flux is approximately 1.2 cal cm
–2
min
–1
at midday. Average wind
velocity is low during summer with a maximum velocity of 7–10 km h
–1
occurring
during daylight hours. Winds generally decrease at night. However, hurricanes
may develop during the summer. They annually threaten, and sometimes desolate,
the region. The average air temperature is approximately 30°C with minor excep-
tions for microclimates in hilly regions, where the temperature is slightly lower,
and in the eastern province of Santiago de Cuba, where it is higher. Humidity is
high throughout the year, but reaches its highest values in summer when it consist-
ently exceeds 95 percent.
In winter, air temperatures are lower, especially in the western part of Cuba
due to the influence of frequent incursions of cold Arctic air masses. Winter
temperatures average 20°C with minimums well below the average after passage
of an Arctic cold front. Average solar illumination in winter is shorter, averaging
seven hours while maximum solar flux decreases to <0.8 cal cm
–2
min
–1

at midday.
Wind velocity in winter is greater with a maximum velocity of 20 km h
–1
during
daylight hours. Hurricanes do not develop during this season and humidity levels
are lower than in summer, but rarely drop below 70 percent.
Rainfall
The average yearly rainfall in Cuba is 1,345 mm, depending on the season and, to
a lesser extent, on the region. The normal rainy season is from May to October
when 80 percent of the total yearly rainfall occurs. Regionally, rainfall is unevenly
distributed with less rainfall along the northern coast. In the mountainous regions
rainfall is heavier, especially during the summer months. Cuba normally experiences
typical tropical-type rainfall, i.e. heavy short-duration downfalls. Ecologically this
causes intense soil erosion which consequently increases the risk of contamination
of lakes, ponds, rivers, and, ultimately, coastal zones from both agrochemicals and
sediments loaded with organic matter. There are no deserts in Cuba, although
several locations receive far below the yearly average rainfall (Atlas climático de
Cuba, 1987).
Watersheds
Cuba has 563 watersheds, whose rivers, because of topography, flow from the
main island’s center to the north or south – 236 flow north and 327 south. Some
of these ‘rivers’ are wet weather streams, flowing only during the rainy season,
while others, especially those that have their origins in the mountains, flow year-
round. Because the main island is narrow, the average river is only 40 km long and
few rivers are deep enough to be navigable. Likewise in Cuba, there are few natural
lakes and lagoons. To retain part of the year’s rainfall for the summer growing
season, more than 200 artificial dams and lagoons have been constructed in or
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
402 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
near regions with high agricultural water demand. More than 70 percent of the

impounded water is used for that purpose (Academia de Ciencias de Cuba, 1992).
The groundwater table in most of Cuba is very shallow, especially in the south
where in many places groundwater is near the soil surface. However, in the north
it is quite different for there it is generally necessary to drill through bedrock to
reach water. For these reasons, the risk of agrochemicals leaching into groundwater
is higher in the south, especially where light, sandy soils predominate. Groundwater
contamination from agrochemicals is a concern in some areas of Pinar del Rio
Province and on the second largest island, The Isle of Youth (formerly the Isle of
Pines), located south of Havana Province. Both regions are important citrus pro-
duction areas.
Principal economic crops
The most important crops, listed by area under cultivation or economic contri-
bution, are sugarcane, banana, citrus, rice, tobacco, legumes, and vegetables.
Sugarcane is the most important by both measures. Fields are evenly distributed
across the flatlands, and occasionally are located very near the coast. However,
only herbicides and plant growth regulators are used in sugarcane production
resulting in low risk of contamination to aquatic ecosystems. Cultivation practices
result in the same herbicides being applied each year and this may actually enhance
the degradation of these compounds and consequently reduce the risk to the
environment.
Ecologically rice cultivation is more important not only because it requires a
diversity of pesticides (Table 14.1) but also because the necessary application equip-
ment for applying these compounds over large areas (primarily by aerial application)
increases the likelihood of drift (Bossan et al., 1995) or accidental application to
non-target aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, rice cultivation is ecologically impor-
tant because of the proximity of most large rice producing regions to the coast
(Figure 14.1). The last two factors contribute most to the potential for environ-
mental contamination. Furthermore, drainage from rice paddy fields treated with
pesticides may also impact local aquatic wildlife.
Most of Cuba’s banana production is treated with fungicides to protect against

disease. However, pesticides are applied only when the disease (or pest) reaches
the EIL. This technique allows a reduction in the number of treatments and, thus,
a lower impact on the environment. Banana plantations have experienced a reduc-
tion of about 50 percent in the annual number of applications compared to other
banana growers in the Caribbean region.
Similar management practices in citrus, potato, and tobacco are in place but
these crops are generally planted in sandy soil. The sandy soils contribute to the
leaching hazard and consequent groundwater contamination from pesticide
applications. Managing this risk requires the implementation of a monitoring
program to evaluate leachable residue movement of highly persistent pesticide in
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 403
order to restrict or ban those found in well water. Another problem in these sandy
soil lands is increased contamination of nearby waterways from runoff and erosion,
each bearing substantial quantities of pesticides. Table 14.2 presents results from
an experiment designed to measure desorption of pesticides from two typical
agricultural soils of Cuba. Desorption was higher from the sandy soil due to its
low organic matter content.
Figure 14.1 Map of the Cuban Archipelago showing the major rice production areas
Table 14.1 Pesticides authorized for use in rice cultivation
Pesticide Rate (kg a.i. ha
–1
) Pesticide Rate (kg a.i. ha
–1
)
Benfuracarb 20 Dalapon 4.4–13.5
Benomyl 2 Deltamethrin 0.0125
Bentazone 1.2 Dimethoate 0.4–0.6
β-Cyfluthrin 0.0125 Edifenphos 0.5–0.7
Buprofezin (a chitin 0.25 Thiobencarb 1.5–5

synthesis inhibitor) (a thiocarbamate herbicide)
Carbaryl 1.7–2.5 Fenpropathrin 0.1–0.2
Carbofuran 1.0 Fenthion 0.5–0.75
Chlorpyrifos 0.48–0.72 Fenvalerate 0.2
Cyfluthrin 0.0037–0.05 Fenitrothion 0.3
2,4-D (isopropyl ester) 0.6–1.2 Iprobenphos 0.5–0.7
λ-Cyhalothrin 0.006–0.01 Isoprothiolane
(fungicide/insecticide) 0.5
Malathion 1.14–1.4 Methyl parathion 1–1.5
Molinate (a thiocarbamate
herbicide) 1.8–2.5 Phosphamidon 0.5
Methamidophos 0.4–0.6 Propanil 1.08–3.5
Oxadiazon 1–2 Tebuconazol
(a conazole fungicide) 0.25
Source: Lista Oficial de Plaguicidas Autorizados, 1995/1996 (Ministry of Agriculture, 1996).
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
404 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
PESTICIDE USE AND DISTRIBUTION
Past and current use patterns
Pesticides have been used in Cuba since the early 1950s but the pesticide class and
use patterns have changed over the years. The first organic pesticides used in Cuban
agriculture were the herbicide 2,4-D, some OC insecticides, and dithiocarbamate
fungicides. In this respect Cuba followed world trends in pesticide development
and trade. During the 1960s, the triazine herbicides and some others were
introduced for sugarcane weed control. Also, OP and carbamate insecticides were
gradually substituted for more persistent OC insecticides. The introduction of
synthetic pyrethroids in the late 1980s then contributed to a ban of all OCs.
Currently no OC or other highly toxic or persistent pesticides are permitted to be
used in agriculture. The present trend is to introduce and use only the less toxic
and less persistent pesticides available on world markets.

Cuba’s pesticide use pattern has undergone significant change from an initial
use pattern of spraying according to a fixed schedule, independent of the presence
or absence of the target pest. This placed an unnecessary chemical deposit on
crops, increasing both the risk of undesirable environmental effects and significantly
adding to production costs. In the late 1970s, a radical change was introduced
whereby a pesticide was applied only if the pest density, disease prevalence, or
weed density surpassed a threshold level that would result in economically significant
damage to the final crop. This reduced the number of treatments, the unit cost,
and the potential environmental impact.
In recent years an important new trend has developed with the introduction for
agricultural use of a new generation of pesticides that further reduces residue
concentrations on or in crops and the potential environmental impact from their
use. This is because application rates for these new pesticides are very low (ranging
from 15 to 500 g a.i. ha
–1
) and they are generally easily biodegraded in the environ-
ment. Examples of this trend include the introduction of pyrethroids and other
biorational insecticides, e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, which was substituted for
Table 14.2 Desorption of pesticides in two Cuban soil types
Pesticide Red ferralitic soil type Brown plastic soil type
total desorption (%) total desorption (%)
Simazine 73.34 68.30
Atrazine 62.30 67.93
Ametryn 60.14 75.45
Carbofuran 56.42 62.25
Bromacil 51.98 67.00
Prometryn 45.17 71.13
Pirimiphos-methyl 22.09 20.56
Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts

Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 405
some carbamate and OP insecticides in the late 1970s, and the use of triazole
fungicides in place of dithiocarbamates. More recently the introduction of sulfonyl
urea herbicides in rice culture has reinforced this trend. This, coupled with new
measures of biological control, has further reduced the demand for synthetic
pesticides and stand as one of the significant advancements of the last decade.
The trends that have taken place in plant protection in Cuban agriculture are
similar to other countries (Farm Chemicals International, 1996) and follow world
concerns about the use of and reliance on agrochemicals.
Location of applications with respect to the
marine environment
Most pesticides used on Cuba’s primary agricultural crops are applied by aerial or
large ground-based mechanical sprayers. In some cases, pastures are also treated
by aerial applications, which are highly subject to drift. Because of the prevailing
wind direction during daylight hours (almost all applications occur after daybreak),
the risk of direct contamination of north-coast coastal waters is extremely low. On
the contrary, along the south coast, particularly near some large rice fields (Figure
14.1), the risk of direct contamination is much greater. However, for technical and
economic reasons, aerial applications are allowed only when the wind velocity is
very low (<3 m sec
–1
). If this regulation is followed, drift and its concomitant
contamination is effectively reduced. Another form of coastal contamination may
occur when pesticides are adsorbed onto eroded soils in runoff and with drainage
waters from rice culture areas. This form of environmental contamination is the
most important, because rice fields are located along waterways or very near the
coast.
TECHNICAL APPROACHES
Integrated pest management
One of the most important achievements in agriculture worldwide in the last twenty

years is undoubtedly the development of the concept of IPM and the subsequent
introduction of ideas associated with it into agricultural practice (Verreet, 1995).
The most significant ideas from the standpoint of environmental impact are the
selection of insect and disease resistant crop varieties, adequate soil preparation
for the specific crop, planting at the optimal time, rational use of chemical pesticides
to minimize their detrimental effects on natural enemies of noxious insects, use of
biological pest controls when economical and feasible, and the use of pesticides
only after a pest reaches an economic injury threshold population level. IPM
guidelines effectively reduce the need for applying pesticides and thus minimize
their introduction into the environment.
IPM has been implemented for several of Cuba’s major crops with excellent
results. IPM programs are in place for rice, coffee, citrus, tobacco, and banana
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
406 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
with research ongoing to establish IPM guidelines for other crops, e.g. potato and
some vegetables. To implement IPM, several steps are necessary. Basic and applied
research is conducted by research institutes and universities, where extension
education programs and large-scale demonstration projects are used to present
the results of their work. Concurrently an intensive grass roots education and
outreach program is conducted at the farmer level by the National Center of
Plant Health, Agriculture Ministry. This includes training courses, workshops, and
distribution of technical information using various media to present basic knowledge
of IPM techniques for a specific crop. Another measure implemented to reduce
pesticide residues in food crops is periodically checking for compliance with
established pre-harvest intervals (Ministry of Agriculture, 1996). This work is done
by the 14 provincial residue laboratories in Cuba. A substantial reduction in
pesticide use is one of the results of IPM implementation. In some crops, such as
banana, the actual use of pesticides is approximately 50 percent below the level
needed without this new approach.
Pesticide regulations

Before 1987, the importation, distribution, storage, use, and waste disposal of
pesticides were regulated by a patchwork of separate legal statutes, that considered
in isolation were sufficient for each specific issue for which they were designed but
overall lacked coordination and integration. For example, the statute on pesticide
storage regulated all aspects related to this activity, e.g. storage building charac-
teristics, ventilation facilities, and accident (fires, spills, etc.) procedures. However,
it made no mention of pesticide quality assurance, maximum storage times, or
other important considerations such as preventive health care for pesticide workers.
Finally in 1987, Cuba enacted a law that created the National Pesticide Registra-
tion Office (Gaceta Oficial de la República de Cuba Año 1987, 1989) which now
strictly regulates the importation, transport, uses, storage, waste disposal, and other
important aspects of pesticides. Before importation, all pesticides for agricultural
or other uses must be registered. To register a new pesticide a.i. or a new formulated
product of a known active material, it is mandatory that the producer or seller
submit to the Registration Office all data required by legislation. These data include
the chemical composition of the formulated product (a.i., impurities, solvents, co-
adjuvants, inert materials, etc.); its biological effectiveness against targeted pests
on crops for which the product will be used; the analytical methods used to obtain
required data; toxicological evaluation data; ecotoxicology; and environmental
behavior, fate, and transport. The law encourages submission of other aspects
such as safe handling procedures for the formulated product.
The multidisciplinary scientific staff of the Registration Office evaluate all data
submitted and decides which data needs independent verification, though verifica-
tion of some pesticide product data is mandatory according to the registration
law. Mandatory verification includes checking the physiochemical parameters of
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 407
the product; its biological effectiveness against target pests, effectiveness in the
crops proposed, and effectiveness under the climatic conditions and agricultural
practices of Cuba; establishing residue levels in the proposed crops; and establishing

the appropriate pre-harvest interval. The staff may require that the environmental
behavior of the new formulated product, e.g. soil degradation, leaching potential,
and water-sediment distribution (and degradation) be experimentally checked. In
special cases, a product’s effect on honey bees, earthworms, or fish is considered
based on its toxicological properties and its possible uses. In all cases, the Registration
Office verifies the required parameters through contracts with research institutes
in Cuba.
If the new pesticide fulfills all requirements, the Registration Office grants a
permit which is valid for importation and selling the new formulated product in
Cuba for five years. If the new product fails to meet all requirements, the permit is
refused and the importation of the compound is banned. Upon approval, the
Registration Office will list the new formulated product in the ‘Cuban Official
Pesticide Authorized List’ which it publishes yearly. Generally only those pesticides
are allowed to be registered that do not present an excessive health hazard to
consumers of agricultural products, wildlife, or the environment.
The quality of all imported pesticides and those formulated in Cuba is checked
periodically by the Pesticide Chemistry Laboratories of the Ministry of Agriculture
(there is one in each Cuban province) and the Plant Protection Research Institute
(INISAV). Violation of permitted parameters results in the Pesticide Registration
Office canceling the offending pesticide’s permit. The Pesticide Registration Office
has banned some persistent and health endangering pesticides from all uses in
Cuba (Table 14.3).
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PESTICIDES
Behavior in soil and water
Pesticide residues in crops and the environment are generally quite low due to the
tropics’ favorable climatic conditions for pesticide degradation and Cuba’s strict
regulations on their use. High solar radiation, air temperatures, soil temperatures,
and moisture levels favor high dissipation rates for pesticides through photolysis,
volatilization, and degradation (especially soil degradation from enhanced microbial
activity) (Malbury et al., 1996). However, several moderately persistent pesticides

may be found in the environment but generally at low concentrations. These
pesticides are almost exclusively OCs which are now banned in Cuba and thus
their environmental concentrations should continue to decline.
INISAV studies the environmental behavior of pesticides with the goal of
reducing the concentration of pesticide residues in crops, soils, and waters by
systematically conducting laboratory and field experiments and monitoring
programs with newly introduced pesticides. Specific adsorption constants (K values)
for Cuban soil types and agricultural pesticides are developed which predict the
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
408 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
movement of those pesticides in various ecosystems and in water-sediment systems.
Table 14.4 presents K values for selected pesticides in two major Cuban soil types.
Lower K values predict higher rates of leaching and runoff for the pesticide.
Leaching and upward capillary movement of pesticides in soils are two opposing
phenomena, taking place simultaneously with upward capillary movement reducing
the risk of water table contamination by the pesticide. Table 14.5 gives the leaching
behavior of several pesticides commonly used in agriculture (Dierksmeier, forth-
coming). Concentrations beyond the arable layer (25 cm depth) are low even under
severe laboratory conditions. Table 14.6 shows the upward capillary movement of
selected herbicides in a red ferralitic soil based on laboratory and field experiments.
This demonstrates the opposing effect to leaching (Dierksmeier, 1986).
Theoretically dissipation and degradation of pesticides in tropical soils should
occur at higher rates than in temperate zones. This is the situation, in part due to
favorable weather conditions throughout the year that enhance the development
Table 14.3 Pesticides banned from use in Cuba
Aldrin Heptachlor
Dieldrin Leptophos
Camphechlor (Toxaphene) Sodium fluoroacetate (Compound 1080)
Chlordimeform Thallium salts (rodenticide)
Chlorobenzilate 2,4,5-T

Inorganic arsenic compounds Dinoseb
DDT Hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane)
Dibromochloropropane (Nemagon) Nitrofen (herbicide)
Inorganic mercurial compounds Fluoracetamide (rodenticide)
Organic mercurial compounds Cyhexatin
Endrin Ethylene dibromide
Source: Dierksmeier, 1996.
Table 14.4 Specific adsorption constants (K) for selected pesticides in two important
Cuban agricultural soils
K (
µ
g g
–1
)
a
Pesticide Red ferralitic soil Brown plastic soil
Simazine 2.4 12.7
Atrazine 0.41 1.5
Ametryn 4.04 7.71
Carbofuran 0.29 1.54
Bromacil 2.89 23.9
Prometryn 4.47 29.98
Pirimiphos-ethyl 29.3 54.9
Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming.
Note:
a Determined according to Freundlich’s law.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 409
of a microflora, which contributes to the degradation of the pesticides in soil
(Pemberton, 1981). Other factors like photolysis, volatilization (due to high soil

temperature in summer), and runoff contribute to rapid dissipation of these com-
pounds in soil (Laskowski et al., 1983). This is illustrated in Table 14.7 for some
triazine herbicides, which are commonly and extensively used in many crops
including sugarcane.
The residues after harvest of several soil-applied pesticides are shown in Table
14.8. These results are from under field conditions. Other factors including root
uptake of part of the applied pesticide may have been responsible for some of the
residues. In some cases, concentrations in the soil are sufficiently high to injure
crops grown in rotation (Stougard et al., 1990).
Repeated, long-term application of a pesticide to the same crop species over
many years causes selection and development of a specific microflora. This micro-
Table 14.5 Leaching of selected pesticides in two Cuban soil types
Simulated annual rainfall (mm)
100 200 400
Pesticide Soil type Soil layer (cm) Leaching (% of total pesticide
found in the column)
Ametryn Red ferralitic 0–5 69.05 20.93 49.47
5–10 12.18 12.67 31.92
10–15 9.30 17.62 12.25
15–20 7.75 19.70 3.63
20–25 4.84 29.04 1.81
Atrazine Red ferralitic 0–5 67.62 20.60 34.64
5–10 14.16 18.04 34.75
10–15 9.80 19.18 18.82
15–20 5.84 16.83 7.85
20–25 2.70 16.33 3.92
Propachlor Red ferralitic 0–10 100 100 –
a
10–20 – – –
20–30 – – –

Brown plastic 0–10 42.7 60 –
10–20 38.2 24 –
20–30 19.1 16 –
Propiconazole Red ferralitic 0–10 100 98.1 97.1
10–20 – 1.9 2.9
20–30 – – –
Metolachlor Red ferralitic 0–10 49.3 29.3 18.8
10–20 28.4 35.8 43.1
20–30 22.3 34.8 38.1
Brown plastic 0–10 52.5 44.8 47.0
10–20 38.7 46.2 46.7
20–30 8.8 9.0 6.3
Source: Dierksmeier, forthcoming.
Note:
a En dash (–) indicates no data.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
410 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
flora can degrade the pesticide at higher rates compared to the microflora in a
pristine soil after first application of the pesticide. Figure 14.2 shows the degradation
of carbofuran (a rice crop soil insecticide) after application to pristine soil and soil
subject to long-term application of the pesticide. Degradation in the soil subject to
long-term application of carbofuran is very rapid. In pristine soil of the same soil
Table 14.6 Upward capillary movement of selected herbicides in a Cuban red ferralitic
soil
% Herbicide found in soil
layers (cm depth)
a
Herbicide Time post-application (d) 0–6 6–12 12–18
Ametryn 2 0.8 22 77.1
4 3.04 17 79.8

7 4.83 22.4 72.6
Prometryn 2 0.9 20.2 78.9
4 1.8 21.4 76.8
7 5.1 25.3 69.6
Simazine 2 0.57 15 84.3
4 2.42 17 80.5
7 8.11 28.8 62.9
Bromacil 2 9.78 42.1 62.9
4 56.0 23.8 48.0
7 48.1 42.5 20.0
Atrazine 2 17.7 40.5 41.8
4 25.7 33.5 40.8
7 48.3 22.2 31.95
Atrazine 7 1.69 5.20 93.11
(Field data) 14 1.26 2.47 96.27
24 0.87 1.18 97.84
Source: Dierksmeier, 1986.
Note:
a The soil depth, 0 cm, indicates the soil surface.
Table 14.7 Dissipation of triazine herbicides in a Cuban red ferralitic soil under field
conditions
a
Residue (mg kg
–1
) remaining after time (d)
Herbicide 0 4 17 30 46 67 120
Ametryn 1.45 1.01 1.08 –
b
0.57 0.47 0.15
Atrazine 1.73 1.54 1.04 – 0.59 0.47 0.20

Simazine 1.55 1.50 1.02 0.87 – 0.76 0.44
Prometryn 1.20 0.92 0.68 0.63 0.46 0.32 0.25
Terbumeton 1.77 1.65 1.74 1.08 0.96 0.89 0.38
Notes:
a Sisinno
et al
., 1990.
b En dash (–) indicates no sample taken.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 411
type, the dissipation rate is much lower suggesting a microflora that is less efficient
at degrading carbofuran. Ecologically this phenomenon is advantageous, reducing
the time this chemical is in the environment. However, from the agricultural view-
point, this reduces the chemical’s effectiveness and results in increased application
rates to adequately protect the crop. The same phenomenon may be taking place
Table 14.8 Pesticide residues in soil after application or harvest
Pesticide Residue Detection limit Days post- Crops
(mg kg
–1
) (mg kg
–1
) application
Trifluralin 0.30 0.02 164 tomato
Nitrofen ND
a
0.02 120 vegetable
2,4-D ND 0.05 22 rice
Dalapon ND 0.30 10 rice
Ametryn 0.15 0.02 120 potato
Simazine 0.20 0.02 120 maize

Prometryn 0.25 0.02 120 potato
Desmetryn
(a methylthiotriazine
herbicide) 0.09 0.02 120 maize
Terbumeton 0.33 0.02 120 citrus
Diuron 1.96 0.05 70 pineapple
Bromacil 0.13 0.02 61 pineapple
Source: Dierksmeier, 1990.
Note:
a ND indicates below detection limit.
0
81
81
56740
2
.5 55 14
20
51 5
081624
Time (d)
Concentration (mg kg
–1
)
pristine soil
long-term applied soil
Figure 14.2 Degradation of carbofuran in a typical rice soil
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
412 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
in other crops to which the same pesticide has been applied for many years including
sugarcane, citrus, and banana. Furthermore, this process partly explains the low

residue concentrations found in Cuba’s agricultural soils.
The OC pesticides are a special case in that they show a high persistence
(compared to other classes of pesticides under similar conditions) that may be due
to a lack of soil microorganisms capable of transforming and degrading them.
The soil behavior of DDT and dieldrin in a red ferralitic soil was studied in a field
experiment in which both insecticides were applied to the soil, mixed with the top
10 cm layer of soil, and allowed to weather under environmental conditions (Table
14.9). Samples taken over 19 months were analyzed by gas chromatography yielding
an estimated half-life of 180 d for both insecticides (Dierksmeier, 1989), compared
to a half-life of 10 to 20 d for OP and carbamate insecticides and 40 d for triazine
and diuron herbicides.
There has been increasing worldwide concern about water quality in part due
to many reports of watershed contamination, coastal zone pollution, and pollutant
effects on endangered aquatic species from industrial waste, domestic waste, and
agrochemicals. In Cuba, most watersheds, lagoons, and dams are within or in
close proximity to cultivated lands where pesticide applications are common. Thus,
there is high risk in Cuba for agrochemical contamination of aquatic ecosystems.
Several laboratory-based research projects have assessed the impact of pesticides
in water and water-sediment systems (Dierksmeier et al., 1994) under natural
conditions (Table 14.10). Though it is impossible to extrapolate from these data to
the complex tropical environment, they undoubtedly serve to throw some light on
this complex problem. Some of the results were expected, based on reports from
other counties with similar climatic conditions and the physiochemical properties
of the pesticides considered. However, results for the synthetic pyrethroids are
surprising and raise concern about their fate because of their present widespread
use in Cuban agriculture. The synthetic pyrethroids are highly persistent, especially
in sediments, and are highly toxic to fish (Tomlin, 1994). Further studies are needed
to adequately assess the risk these compounds pose to Cuba’s aquatic ecosystems.
Table 14.9 Dissipation of DDT and dieldrin under field conditions in a Cuban red ferralitic
soil

Insecticide Rate of Residues (mg kg
–1
) remaining after time (months)
application
(mg a.i. kg
–1
)
0 1 2 4 6 7 10 12 19
Dieldrin 3.33 1.91 1.61 1.34 1.55 1.03 0.92 0.78 0.61 0.38
DDT 7.50 4.44 4.33 4.31 –
a
3.11 1.95 0.96 0.43 –
Source: Dierksmeier, 1989.
Note:
a En dash (–) indicates no sample taken.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 413
Over the last ten years, Cuba’s program for monitoring drinking water shows
no major problems with the water supply as all residues found were below the
levels set by national and international regulations (GIFAP, 1989). More than one
thousand samples from wells in agricultural regions of Havana Province (the most
agricultural province with the highest pesticide consumption in Cuba) revealed no
residues in excess of regulatory limits. This trend should continue because of past
efforts to limit groundwater contamination and the future establishment of a
comprehensive monitoring program for surface and ground waters.
Residues in the coastal zone
Currently no systematic monitoring of Cuba’s coastal zone is in place for pesticide
residues. However, International Mussel Watch has sampled offshore bivalves south
of Havana Province as part of a comprehensive Latin American study (UNESCO
et al., 1994). The Centro de Investigación de Ingienería y Medio Ambiente (CIMAB)

has monitored the contamination, including that from pesticides and hydrocarbons,
of Cuba’s principal bays. Recently research evaluating pesticide residue levels in
sediment and biota near an extensive rice producing area has begun in the coastal
Table 14.10 Behavior of pesticides in water-sediment systems
Pesticide Concentration in water (mg L
–1
) or sediment (mg kg
–1
)
Endosulfan time (d) 0 5 8 16 21 63 78 140
water 1.9 0.23 0.16 0.03 0.02 0.01 ND
a
ND
sediment 5.2 206 –
b
35 25 – – 1.3
Lindane time (d) 0 5 8 13 16 21 63 127
water 6 1.3 1.0 2.2 1.2 – 0.004 0.001
sediment 1.6 4.8 – 1.9 0.17 0.13 – ND
Permethrin time (d) 0 5 11 19 45 50 136 170
water 13.6 7.9 5.0 0.27 0.05 ND – –
sediment 169 177 – 434 395 – 270 367
Cypermethrin time (d) 0 5 11 19 45 50 136 170
water 16.8 6.95 4.76 0.25 0.06 ND – –
sediment 161 175 – 424 263 – 187 165
Dichlorvos time (d) 0 5 11 20 45 50
water 2.5 2.4 1.5 0.04 0.01 ND
sediment ND ND – – – –
Fenthion time (d) 0 3 6 14 22 35 48 60
water 10 4.4 2 1.8 0.24 0.10 0.02 ND

sediment 35 – 22.3 2.5 1.4 1.13 0.12 0.10
DDT time (d) 0 12 25 38 61 96 120 150
water 0.96 0.08 0.05 0.003 0.008 0.006 – 0.003
sediment 20.8 44.8 49.08 – – 44.7 42.4 22.3
Source: Dierksmeier
et al.
, 1994.
Notes:
a ND indicates below detection limit.
b En dash (–) indicates no sample taken.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
414 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
zone near Los Palacios, south Pinar del Rio Province (see Figure 14.1) as part of a
comprehensive international project focusing on the distribution, fate, and effects
of pesticides on biota in the tropical marine environment using radiotracer
technology. This project is sponsored by the International Atomic Energy Agency
with technical assistance from the Marine Environmental Laboratory in Monaco
and focuses on the evaluation of OC and OP pesticide residue levels in sediment
and biota along Dayanigua Beach between the Carraguao and San Diego rivers
(Figure 14.3).
Sampling sites included the mouths of the San Diego and Carraguao rivers and
a segment of a tidal mangrove coast east of San Diego River and west of Carraguao
River. Samples of the predominant species of bivalve the Flat Tree or Mangrove
oyster Isognomon alatus Gmelin (Bivalva: Isognomonidae) were taken along a kilo-
meter of coastline between the rivers (UNEP et al., 1991). Table 14.11 (Dierksmeier
et al., 1996) summarizes the results of analyses for OC residues in the field samples.
Only DDT residues were found in sediment and biota and no other OCs,
pyrethroids, or PCBs were detected. The concentration of ∑ DDT (the sum of
the parent compound and its metabolites) in sediments remained fairly stable during
the dry season but declined after the start of the rainy season, perhaps due to

intense runoff caused by strong tropical storms during that October and November.
However, ∑ DDT concentration in biota remained nearly unchanged for all sample
dates. The absence of residues from pesticides actually used in the rice fields near
Figure 14.3 Sampling sites at Dayamgua Beach, Cuba
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 415
the sampling sites, e.g. endosulfan and synthetic pyrethroids, was surprising and in
part explained by the results presented in Table 14.10 which show a strong
adsorption of these pesticides in the sediment phase and a high dissipation rate
from the aqueous phase (Dierksmeier et al., 1994).
Table 14.12 summarizes the results for OP residues in the same field samples.
No residues were found in sediment or biota samples above the detection limit.
This may be due to the rapid degradation of OPs in aquatic systems or to the
adsorption of these pesticides by sediments in drainage channels (Readman et al.,
1992). Each mechanism results in minimal quantities reaching the coastal zone
(see Table 14.13) (Dierksmeier et al., 1998). Experiments, carried out in rice field
drainage channels (see Figure 14.4), demonstrated a very high reduction in the
concentrations of OPs and other pesticides, especially endosulfan and cypermethrin
(Dierksmeier et al., 1998).
Table 14.11 Total ∑ DDT and its metabolites found in sediment and biota (µg kg
–1
)
Date Sampling site
I II III IV
Sediment Sediment Biota Sediment Biota Sediment
9 December 1994 2.39 –
a
–– ––
18 February 1995 11.63 14.46 12.96 13.51 19.45 12.44
25 April 1995 4.62 23.15 11.20 17.65 23.80 21.00

25 July 1995 ND
b
ND 12.90 ND 14.74 ND
17 November 1995 ND ND – ND – ND
Source: Dierksmeier
et al
., 1996.
Notes:
a En dash (–) indicates no sample taken.
b ND indicates below detection limit of 0.25 µg kg
–1
for OCs.
Table 14.12 OP residues in field samples
Sampling Date Type of sample Pesticide residue
sites (S = sediment; B = biota) (
µ
g kg
–1
)
I–IV 8 December 1994 S ND
a
BND
I–IV 18 February 1995 S ND
BND
I–IV 23 April 1995 S ND
BND
I–IV 25 July 1995 S ND
BND
I–IV 17 November 1995 S ND
BND

Source: Dierksmeier
et al.
, 1996.
Note:
a ND indicates below detection limit of 5 µg kg
–1
.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
416 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
MANAGEMENT OF PESTICIDE RESIDUES
Industrial pesticide residues
In Cuba there are no major pesticide manufacturers but there are several formu-
lation facilities whose waste waters pose a risk of environmental contamination.
However, strict laws and regulations for pesticide formulators compel them to
decontaminate waste water before its release into the environment. The Ministry
of Health conducts systematic monitoring of wells and surface waters around
these plants to aid enforcement of regulatory measures. They have recently installed
vapor and dust traps to reduce local effects caused by some formulation facilities,
e.g. the formulation plant for the fanes herbicide, 2,4-D. Currently all formulation
facilities meet regulatory standards and no major problems are associated with
their activities.
Agricultural pesticide residues
Many agricultural activities may result, directly or indirectly, in environmental
contamination by pesticides but the risk can be reduced through proper manage-
ment techniques. Obviously activities resulting in direct environmental con-
tamination are of greatest concern and these include weed control in water channels
Table 14.13 Dynamic adsorption of pesticides under field conditions
Pesticide Experiment Initial Concentration found at the indicated
concentration points (mg L
–1

)
(mg L
–1
) 200 m 600 m 1,000 m 1,200 m
Dimethoate 1 0.6 0.40 0.01 ND
a
ND
2 0.3 0.01 ND –
b
ND
Iprobenfos 1 0.7 0.30 0.006 0.003 0.006
2 0.35 0.27 0.02 – 0.003
Methyl parathion 1 1.5 0.40 0.009 0.003 0.008
2 0.75 0.53 0.04 – 0.06
Malathion 1 1.4 0.50 0.008 0.007 0.001
2 0.7 0.54 0.1 – 0.07
Chlorpyrifos 1 0.72 0.12 0.005 0.004 0.002
2 0.36 0.11 0.003 – 0.001
Cypermethrin 1 0.05 0.02 ND ND ND
2 0.025 0.02 ND – ND
α+β Endosulfan 1 1.0 0.14 0.006 0.002 0.001
2 0.5 0.02 0.002 – 0.002
Carbofuran 2 0.35 0.085 0.053 – ND
Source: Dierksmeier
et al.
, 1998.
Notes:
a ND indicates below detection limit.
b En dash (–) indicates no sample taken.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts

Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 417
Figure 14.4 Channel system for the study of adsorption behavior of pesticides in a water/
sediment system
Pesticide
suspension
Water
Sediment
Water
Plants
Drain hose
Stirrer
Drum
Drain
and control of human and domestic animal disease vectors. Spraying to control
either weeds or mosquito larvae results in high levels of pesticides in surface waters
which may harm non-target organisms. These treatments are justified only if the
benefit to risk ratio is sufficiently high to compensate for secondary effects to the
environment (Hurlbert, 1975). There are no specific measures or regulations in
place in Cuba to reduce or eliminate these practices. However, in some cases,
mechanical weeding of drainage channels and the use of the mosquito fish Gambusia
affinis Baird and Girad (Cyprinodontiformes: Poeciliidae) have given good results.
The indirect causes of pesticide contamination are numerous and while some
are avoidable, others are inherent in pesticide use, and some are due to human
failure. One of the most important indirect sources of pesticide contamination in
the environment is from washing empty pesticide drums, washing plastic pesticide
containers, and discarding the plastic bags in which some pesticides are packaged.
Cleaning application equipment also creates problems because there are not always
special places in the field to receive and treat the rinsing water adequately. In some
cases, ignorant or irresponsible workers discard these wastes in violation of pertinent
regulations.

Worldwide more than a billion empty drums are recycled each year. The cleaning
and rinsing water contain approximately 500,000 kg of formulated pesticides
(Munnecke, 1979) for disposal, which is generally discarded. Other Caribbean
countries report similar problems with the discarding of empty containers (Espinosa
Gonzales, 1996). Disposal of pesticide containers by dumping, burning, or burial
is not always carried out correctly. Plastic pesticide containers are sometimes reused
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
418 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
for storing and transporting fuels or, in some cases, for domestic uses. Good manage-
ment practice requires thoroughly cleaning containers and adding the rinsing water
to the spray mixture, thus saving money and protecting the environment.
Recently the Plant Protection Research Institute developed a simple and
inexpensive procedure to receive, treat, and ultimately dispose of the products of
this treatment as harmless wastes. The procedure was designed to reduce the
quantities of pesticide residues from farms and small pesticide storehouses by
flocculating the wastewater with ferric salts and calcium hydroxide. The resulting
sediment is separated and treated with calcium oxide while the water phase is
aerated and drained through a cement channel where heterotropic algae are grown.
The result of this procedure is a harmless solid waste and clean water.
Contamination by air drift
Almost 35 percent of the pesticides produced annually worldwide are applied by
aerial application (Ware et al., 1970). The productivity increases and the economic
benefits of this application technique are undeniable. Pesticide drift associated
with aerial application is the primary concern. Drift is affected by a number of
factors including wind velocity, air temperature, type of pesticide formulation,
and aircraft altitude at application. Under Cuba’s environmental conditions only
85 percent of the applied pesticide actually reached the targeted crop following
aerial application (Garcia Perez, 1981). This is both economically and ecologically
unacceptable. However, technically it is not advisable to restrict or ban the aerial
application of pesticides, because of the trend toward merging small farms into

large plantations and the concentration of some crop’s production into areas where
they grow satisfactorily. This has happened for sugarcane, rice, and banana in
Cuba; corn, wheat, and soybeans in the United States; wheat and sunflowers in
Argentina; and soybeans in Brazil (Groner, 1985). These trends will continue to
make aerial application of pesticides necessary.
To reduce the drift of pesticides from aerial application, applicators should use
ultra low volume (ULV) formulations specifically designed for the job and begin at
daybreak or early morning when wind velocity and air temperature are lowest.
Furthermore, they should avoid flying on hot days to reduce droplet evaporation
and, flying as low as possible, use the maximum droplet size permitted, balancing
a lower drift rate against spotty pesticide distribution and poorer pest control for
larger droplet diameters (Akesson and Yates, 1964). Arriving at a satisfactory
compromise between low drift and adequate biological effectiveness is essential to
economically and ecologically cost-effective aerial application of pesticides. An
adequate compromise between these factors will result in more efficient crop
protection, savings in pesticide costs, and increase crop production with fewer
environmental consequences. However, no matter what compromise is used,
applicators cannot completely avoid damage to the flora and fauna on field edges.
Fortunately unintended effects due to aerial application of pesticides in Cuba are
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 419
limited due to strict regulations and mandatory monetary compensation when
damage occurs from aerial application.
Volatilization of pesticides from crops and
soils
Volatilization of pesticides applied to crops and soil is another source of contamina-
tion that can be reduced through proper management. Especially in the tropics,
the physical process of volatilization is very rapid immediately after application of
the pesticide but slows thereafter, and continues for long periods. Volatilization
rates depend on several factors including the prevailing environmental conditions

(wind velocity and air temperature), the vapor pressure of the pesticide, and its
behavior on the plant (contact or systemic pesticide) (Kersting and Kuck, 1992).
Over the long term, pesticide loss by volatilization is greater than the loss by drift.
Lloyd-Jones (1971) found that DDT applied to soil with ambient temperatures
between 20 and 30°C will volatilize at a rate of 0.9 to 4 kg a.i. ha
–1
yr
–1
. While
there are no data available specific to Cuban environmental conditions, volatilization
loss can be managed through the use of systemic pesticides which are rapidly
absorbed into plant tissues and thus less subject to volatilize, though their use is
not always feasible.
Contamination of the environment through leaching and runoff has been
mentioned previously and can be reduced by increasing the soil’s organic content
to adsorb and hold pesticides until they are degraded by soil microorganisms and
through application of various agricultural practices. Increasing soil organic matter
content to reduce leaching is effective but expensive. Runoff may be reduced by
proper ploughing techniques and application of foliar herbicides. Both methods
are under consideration in Cuba to prevent further soil erosion and leaching, though
additional research and development programs are necessary to optimize the cost–
benefit ratio.
Management of pesticide residues in crops
Maintaining foodstuff residue levels below nationally and internationally acceptable
MRLs is of utmost importance to protect consumer health and remain in compli-
ance with international trade regulations. To accomplish this, Cuba examines each
combination of pesticide and crop following FAO guidelines (FAO, 1990) and
good agricultural practices. The dissipation of residues is followed analytically to
establish pre-harvest intervals for each pesticide and crop based on MRL guidelines.
The Cuban National Pesticide Registration Office issues yearly the list of experi-

mentally determined pre-harvest intervals.
Despite these precautions, pesticide residue levels are sometimes above the
MRLs. This may be due, among other reasons, to a farmer’s lack of knowledge or
violation of the pre-harvest interval. However, the number of such violations is
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
420 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
relatively small as shown in Table 14.14, which presents monitoring results for
several common crops. Only 1.6 percent of the samples had concentrations beyond
the MRLs, which indicates that pesticide residue management in Cuba’s crops is
effective.
CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECTS
Conclusions
Pesticide contamination in Cuba is very low and is due to the prevailing favorable
weather conditions, the prudent use of these agrochemicals, and strict regulations
concerning all aspects of pesticide importation, transport, storage, use, and waste
disposal. For these reasons, there are no pesticide residues in drinking water beyond
the MRLs while in crops, most pesticide residues are found in compliance with
national and international standards.
In agricultural soils and in inland waters, pesticide dissipation is very rapid.
However, some residues may be present in soil after crops with short growing
seasons. Other residues may persist for long periods in river or reservoir sediments
and these will require further research to thoroughly assess their behavior in the
environment. In the coastal zone, only DDT and its metabolites were found in
sediment and biota, but at very low concentrations and it is extremely unlikely
that these will present future problems.
Prospects
Cuban agriculture, like that in other developing countries, faces certain common
problems. There is a continuous reduction in the amount of useful agricultural
land due to growing cities, recreational areas, industrialization, and park preserves.
Furthermore, every year valuable soils are lost to erosion from the deforestation

that began more than 100 years ago but continues today. An increasing population,
which demands higher quantities and better qualities of agroproducts, and a need
for expanded agricultural exports to contribute to national economic development
pose a tremendous challenge to Cuban agriculture. It must produce more and
better crops using less land and this necessarily implies an increase in productivity,
achievable only through correct and timely application of science-based agricultural
knowledge, including the prudent use of pesticides.
Despite worldwide efforts to find substitutes for agrochemicals, world food
production will depend on the use of these chemicals for the foreseeable future
(FAO, 1994). To relieve projected food shortages, Africa and Latin America are
expected to increase their use of agrochemicals. In the future it will be necessary
to increase research and residue monitoring of crops and the environment to
preserve the environment and contribute to sustainable agriculture. This will require
investment in a scientific infrastructure and periodically upgrading the knowledge
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
Pesticide use in Cuban agriculture, present and prospects 421
Table 14.14 Pesticide residues found in samsples of some important crops in Cuba
a
Crop
Pesticide Cabbage Tomato Cucumber Onion Pepper Citrus Sweet potato Beans Potato Carrot
Zineb No. of samples –
b
12 8 6 16 14 – – – –
Residue Levels
c
– 7.2–3.6 ND
d
6.5–ND 0.5–ND ND – – – –
MRL – 0.5 0.5 7 2 1 – – – –
Methyl parathion No. of samples 36 36 4 8 24 14 8 – – 6

Residue levels ND 0.1–ND ND ND 0.03–ND ND ND – – ND
MRL 0.1 0.05 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1 – – 0.05
Carbaryl No. of samples – 34 – – 12 18 2 4 – –
Residue levels – 0.2–ND – – 0.8–0.1 0.5–0.3 ND ND – –
MRL 2 1 – – 3 2.5 1 0.5 – –
Dimethoate No. of samples 2 30 18 6 16 12 8 – 4 4
Residue levels ND ND ND ND ND ND ND – ND ND
MRL 0.2 0.25 1 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.05 – 0.1 0.1
Methamidophos No. of samples 28 10 – 4 10 – – 45 16 –
Residue levels ND 0.7–ND – 0.02–0.01 0.2–0.07 – – ND ND –
MRL 0.5 0.1 – 0.1 0.2 – – 0.05 0.05 –
Endosulfan No. of samples 6 8 – 6 – – 8 – – –
Residue levels ND ND – ND – – ND – – –
MRL 2.0 0.5 – 0.2 – – – – – –
Trichlorfon No. of samples – 8 12 4 12 – – – – –
Residue levels – ND ND ND 0.8–0.12 – – – – –
MRL – – – 0.5 – – – – – –
Malathion No. of samples 36 26 4 4 25 26 8 – 2 4
Residue levels ND ND ND ND ND ND ND – ND ND
MRL 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.5 0.5 0.1 – 0.1 0.1
Notes:
a FAO, 1994. b En dash (–) indicates no data. c Residue levels in µg kg
–1
. d ND indicates below detection limit.
© 2003 Milton D. Taylor, Stephen J. Klaine, Fernando P. Carvalho, Damia Barcelo and Jan Everaarts
422 Gonzalo Dierksmeier, Pura Moreno, R. Hernández and K. Martinez
and skill levels of Cuba’s environmental and agricultural scientists. These goals
will be achieved with the recent formation of the Ministry of Science Technology
and the Environment and in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture. More
support for basic and applied research will be available and enforcement of environ-

mental regulations will be easier with an end result of better protection for Cuba’s
unique and diverse environment.
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