Nghiên cứu việc khai thác các hoạt động thực tiễn trong lớp học nói cho sinh viên năm thứ nhất khối không chuyên Anh ở Trường Đại học Công nghiệp Hà Nội

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES



NGUYỄN THỊ HOA



THE EXPLOITATION OF AUTHENTIC TASKS IN SPEAKING
CLASSES FOR ENGLISH NON-MAJOR FRESHMEN
AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF INDUSTRY

(NGHIÊN CỨU VIỆC KHAI THÁC CÁC HOẠT ĐỘNG THỰC
TIỄN TRONG LỚP HỌC NÓI CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ NHẤT KHỐI
KHÔNG CHUYÊN ANH Ở TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHIỆP HÀ NỘI)


M.A. Minor thesis



Field: English teaching methodology
Code: 601410





Hanoi, 2011

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES



NGUYỄN THỊ HOA



THE EXPLOITATION OF AUTHENTIC TASKS IN SPEAKING
CLASSES FOR ENGLISH NON-MAJOR FRESHMEN
AT HANOI UNIVERSITY OF INDUSTRY

(NGHIÊN CỨU VIỆC KHAI THÁC CÁC HOẠT ĐỘNG THỰC
TIỄN TRONG LỚP HỌC NÓI CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ NHẤT KHỐI
KHÔNG CHUYÊN ANH Ở TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC CÔNG NGHIỆP HÀ NỘI)


M.A. Minor thesis


Field: English teaching methodology
Code: 601410
Supervisor: Phạm Minh Tâm, M.A.




Hanoi, 2011

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS


Page
Declaration …………………………………………………………………….
i
Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………
ii
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………
iii
Table of contents ………………………………………………………………
iv
List of abbreviations …………………………………………………………
vi
List of figures, tables and charts ……………………………………………
vii
PART A: INTRODUCTION …………………………………………
1
1. Rationale for the Study……………………………………………………….
1
2. Research Aims and Research Questions……………………………………
2
3. Significance of the Study…………………………………………………….
2
4. Scope of the Study……………………………………………………………
3
5. Methodology of the Study …………………………………………………
3

6. Organization of the Study……………………………………………
3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT ………………………………………
4
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ……………………………
4
1.1. Communicative Language Teaching…………………………………
4
1.1.1. Concepts of CLT………………………………………
4
1.1.2. Main characteristics of CLT ………………………………………
4
1.2. An overview of Task-based Language Teaching……………………
5
1.2.1. Definitions of a task ………………………………………………
5
1.2.2. Components of a task ……………………………………………….
7
1.2.3. Types of tasks………………………………………………………
7
1.2.3.1. General types of tasks………………………………………….
7
1.2.3.2. Authentic tasks versus pedagogical tasks……………………
8
1.2.4. Definitions of TBLT…………………………………………………
8
1.2.5. Task-based Learning Framework…………………………………
9
1.2.6. Benefits of Task-based Language Teaching to learners…………
11

1.2.7. Challenges of implementing TBLT …………………………………
12
1.3. Speaking skill ……………………………………………………………
13
1.3.1. Definitions of speaking skill………………………………………
13
1.3.2. Teaching speaking skill in TBLT …………………………………
14
1.4. Authentic tasks in speaking classes ……………………………………
15

v
1.4.1. Common types of authentic tasks…………………………………
15
1.4.2. Criteria to identify authentic tasks……………………………………
16
1.5. Related studies ……………………………………………………………
17
1.6. Conclusive remarks …………………………………………………………
18
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY …………………………………….
19
2.1. Research Context…………………………………………………….
19
2.1.1. Teachers ……………………………………………………………
19
2.1.2. Students ……………………………………………………………
19
2.1.3. Teaching and learning facilities ……………………………………
20

2.1.4. English Course book for Non-major Freshmen……………………
20
2.2. Research Questions ………………………………………………………
20
2.3. Selection of the Participants………………………………………….
21
2.4. Research instruments…………………………………………………….
22
2.4.1. Survey Questionnaire………………………………………………
22
2.4.2. Informal Interviews…………………………………………………
22
2.4.3. Classroom Observation………………………………………
23
2.5. Procedure of data collection ……………………………………………
23
2.6. Procedure of data analysis ……………………………………………….
24
2.7. Conclusive remarks………………………………………………………
24
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ……………
25
3.1. Research question 1…………………………………………………
25
3.2. Research question 2 ………………………………………………….
30
3.3. Research question 3 ……………………………………………………
35
3.4. Conclusive remarks ……………………………………………………
37

PART C: CONCLUSION ……………………………………………
38
1. Summary of the study ………………………………………………….
38
2. Pedagogical implications……………………………………………….
38
3. Limitations and suggestions for further research………………………
40
REFERENCES …………………………………………………………
42
APPENDICES …………………………………………………………
I
Appendix 1: Survey Questionnaire for teachers………………………………
I
Appendix 2: Informal Interviews for teachers…………………………………
V
Appendix 3: Sample of Task-based Speaking Lesson …………………………
VI
Appendix 4: Classroom Observation sheets…………………………………….
IX

vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS


HaUI: Hanoi University of Industry
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
TBLT: Task-based Language Teaching
TBL: Task-based Learning
CLT: Communicative Language Teaching

CC: Communicative Competence
CA: Communicative Approach























vii
LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND CHARTS

Page
Figure 1: A framework for analyzing communicative tasks……………………
7
Figure 2: Task-based Learning Framework……………………………………
10
Table 1: Common types of authentic tasks ……………………………………
16
Table 2: Teachers’ profiles……………………………………………………
21
Table 3: Teachers’ perceptions of speaking skill and the exploitation of
authentic tasks in speaking classes………………………………………

28
Chart 1: Teachers' perceptions of tasks & TBLT………………………………
26
Chart 2: Teachers' perceptions of authentic tasks………………………………
27
Chart 3: Teachers' perceptions of benefits of authentic tasks……………………
30
Chart 4: Teachers’ ways of dealing with speaking activities in the text
book……………………………………………………………………………

31
Chart 5: Teachers' favorite techniques embedded in exploiting authentic
tasks………………………………………………………………………………

34
Chart 6: Students’ response to the tasks as perceived by the teachers…………
35
Chart 7: Teachers' difficulties in exploiting authentic tasks to teach speaking….

36






1
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale for the Study
Speaking is regarded as one of the key outputs for English learners. Of all the four
skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems the most important one.
Classroom activities that develop learners‟ ability to express themselves through speech
would therefore seem an important component in any language courses. People are not able
to communicate in English if they cannot deliver their messages and make themselves
understood. Many Vietnamese university students, especially at HaUI, learn English as their
foreign language without their motivation since they have few opportunities to practice
communicating in the target language.
It is understandable that they have hardly learnt English as a tool of communication
but a university subject. In many universities as well as in HaUI, English is normally taught
for students to help them deal with tests, exams rather than for communication. Grammar-
oriented teaching methods seem to be prevalent in most language classes. Therefore, English
skills though scheduled in the textbooks, are not paid much attention to. Students are
supposed to learn English by exercise completion, but not gaining much for using English as
a tool of communication.
In recent years, the communicative approach in language teaching has become more
and more predominant. However, the real outcomes prove to be a matter of concern of all
language teachers and learners. The fact is that a lot of learners‟ linguistic performance is
quite good in class learning, but when they engage in real-life communication in which the
target language is used, they seem to be hindered by many factors such as lack of

communication skills, inappropriate responses and so on. They really find it difficult to
express with a “real” situation. Such matters may rest with many reasons including
classroom methodology, teaching materials, teacher‟s proficiency as well as speaking
activities. Among which, speaking activities play the crucial role in motivating and getting
students involved in the lesson, then in helping them achieve the goal of using the target
language in real-life communication. Things considered, EFL teachers share an agreement
that it is essential to exploit communicative speaking activities which are close to real life
situations with hope to overcome these current situations. In an attempt to grapple with the
problem, the use of Task-based method has been recommended in teaching speaking at HaUI.
In the literature, there were few studies related to exploitation of authentic tasks in teaching
speaking despite numerous studies were implemented on TBLT. What‟s more, no previous

2
studies have been conducted about the exploitation of authentic tasks in English speaking
classes at the university where the author is teaching.
All of the mentioned conditions, henceforward, have paved the way for the author to
carry out a research on “The Exploitation of Authentic Tasks in Speaking Classes for
English Non-major Freshmen at Hanoi University of Industry”. It is conducted in an
attempt to address the gap in the literature and to offer an insight of the reality of teaching
speaking with the exploitation of authentic tasks to English Non-major Freshmen at HaUI.
Additionally, some suggestions of exploiting authentic tasks effectively to teach speaking
skills will be given with the hope of providing useful source and reference for teachers at
HaUI in particular and for all teachers of English in general to motivate their dear students in
English speaking lessons. Last but not least, it is expected that the research would make a
certain contribution to the improvement of teaching speaking skills for the first-year English
non-major students at HaUI.
2. Research Aims and Research Questions
This study is carried out with the wish of achieving following aims:
- To investigate the teachers‟ perceptions of the exploitation of authentic tasks in English
speaking classes

- To find out the extent to which authentic tasks are exploited in TBL framework in
English speaking lessons
- To explore the difficulties as perceived by the teachers when they exploit authentic
tasks in English speaking lessons
In order to achieve the above-mentioned aims, the following research questions were
raised:
1. What are the teachers‟ perceptions of the exploitation of authentic tasks in teaching
speaking?
2. To what extent are authentic tasks exploited in TBL framework in English speaking
classes by the teachers?
3. What are the challenges as perceived by the teachers when authentic tasks are exploited
in speaking classes?
3. Significance of the Study
This study helps point out the teachers‟ perceptions towards authentic tasks and its
exploitation in teaching speaking skills. Particularly, this study is carried out with the hope
to provide an insight into current teaching situation in English speaking lessons to teach
English Non-major Freshmen at HaUI. Hopefully, the findings and recommendations of this
study will be of some help for both teachers and students of English in the process of

3
teaching and learning speaking skills. The results of this study may also be useful for those
who are interested in this field.
4. Scope of the Study
Due to time constraint as well as the author‟s ability and working conditions, the
study is restricted to mention the exploitation of authentic tasks in teaching speaking.
Furthermore, perceptions and exploitation of authentic tasks are revealed on the part of
teachers who have been teaching English non-major freshmen at HaUI in the school year
2010-2011.
5. Methodology of the Study
To reach the aims of this study, both qualitative and quantitative approaches are made

used of. Data are collected from questionnaire, informal interviews and classroom
observation. The quantitative data collected from survey questionnaire were then analyzed
statistically, while qualitative data were obtained from informal interviews and class
observation. Informal interviews were carried out to supplement the survey questionnaire.
Class observation is employed to get better insight of the reality of exploiting authentic tasks
in speaking lessons. The validity of the study is ensured with the main instrument classroom
observations. Hopefully, with the combination of the three methods, the study would yield
reliable and valid findings.
6. Organization of the Study
The thesis consists of three main parts: the Introduction which provides an overview
of the study, the Development which is the main part and consists of 3 chapters, and the
Conclusion which includes summary of the study, implications, limitations and suggestions
for further study.
Three chapters in the main part are as follows:
- Chapter 1: Literature review sets up theoretical background that is relevant to the
purpose of the study.
- Chapter 2: Methodology gives detailed presentation about the methods and
procedures of the study such as participant selection, data collection methods, data analysis
methods and so on.
- Chapter 3: Findings and discussions show the data collected from the survey
questionnaires, the interviews and observation. Also, the data will be discussed in this
chapter to find out the answer to the research questions.




4
PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will briefly present a theoretical background of the study with the
reexamination of the concepts most relevant to the thesis‟s topic. Firstly, a general
introduction of CLT will be given. Secondly, the overall perspectives of TBLT will be
discussed. Thirdly, an account of teaching speaking skills in Task-based Approach will be
mentioned. Finally, common authentic task types and criteria to identify authentic tasks will
be referred to in speaking classes.
1.1. Communicative language teaching (CLT)
1.1.1. Concepts of CLT
CLT appearing in the 1960s and 1970s is an outcome of more attention to learners‟
effective and appropriate use of language learnt. It is a prominent theoretical model in
English language teaching (ELT) and is widely accepted nowadays as one of the effective
approaches.
According to Nunan (1989) “CLT views language as a system for the expression of
meaning. Activities involve oral communication, carrying meaningful tasks, and using
language, which is meaningful to the learners. Objectives reflect the needs of the learners;
they include functional skills as well as linguistic objectives. The learner‟s role is as a
negotiator and integrator. The teacher‟s role is as a facilitator of the communication
process. Materials promote communicative language use; they are task based and
authentic” (p.194).
Although there are various definitions and versions of what CLT is and how it
functions, there are a few general concepts that are agreed upon. Richards, et al., (1986)
shows another point about CLT as “an approach to foreign or second language teaching
which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.” This
definition presents the main concept of CLT, which is the focus on developing
communicative competence among learners.
1.1.2. Main characteristics of CLT
Many excellent chapters and books have been written to capture the characteristics of
CLT (Canale, 1983; Littlewood, 1981; Richards &Rodgers, 2001; Richard & Schmidt, 1983;
Rivers, 1968; Savignon, 1993).
Larsen-Freeman asserts that the most obvious characteristic of CLT is “almost

everything that is done is done with a communicative intent” (p.132). Accordingly, CLT
aims at making CC the goal of language teaching and developing procedures for the teaching

5
of the four language skills that acknowledge the independence of language and
communication (Le Van Canh, 2004). The CA does a lot to expand on the primary goal of
building up “communicative competence”. Understanding the concept of CC is the core to
apply CLT in a given social context. The concept was first introduced by Hymes (1972) as
“what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech
community”.
Littlewood (1981) states “one of the most characteristic features of communicative
language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural
aspects of language, combining these into a more fully communicative view”(p.1). CLT
advocates going beyond teaching grammatical rules of the target language, and
recommending that, by using the target language in a meaningful way, learners will develop
CC.
According to Richards (2001), one of the goals of CLT is to develop fluency in
language use. Fluency is the natural use of language that occurs when a speaker engages in
meaningful interaction and maintains ongoing communication despite limitations in
communicative competence. While using the language, accuracy is important but
communication precedes it. So, it is advocated in CLT that if messages are understood,
accuracy may be achieved later.
Another characteristic of CLT is its use of authentic materials (Larsen-Freeman,
1986; Widowson, 1996). It is desirable to give students opportunities to respond to genuine
communicative situations so that they can develop strategies for understanding language as
actually used by native speakers (Canale & Swain, 1980). Authentic materials in teaching
speaking include articles from magazines or newspapers, video recordings of live television
programs.
CLT emphasizes on learner-centered teaching. It means that learners are negotiators
and interactors while the teacher functions as a facilitator, needs analyst, counselor, and

process manager (Nunan, 1989). By this way, it allows learners a greater role in
management of their own learning. This can be done by giving opportunities for learner
choice in terms of what to learn and how to learn and how to be evaluated (Nunan, 2003). In
speaking classes, students must be made to feel secure and unthreatened; so teachers using
CLT should avoid adopting a teacher-centered, authoritarian posture (Taylor, 1994).
1.2. An overview of Task-based Language Teaching and Learning
1.2.1. Definitions of a task
In the literature, various definitions have been offered that differ widely in scope and
formulation up to a point where almost anything related to educational activity can now be

6
called a “task”. Clearly, in order to prevent the understanding of tasks from being fuzzy and
overwhelming, clear definitions of what author mean when they use the word “task” are
necessary.
Within much discussion and varying interpretation as to the definition of tasks, Long
(1985) defines “task” as “ … piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for
some reward…By “task” is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at
work, at play, an in between” (p.89). Meanwhile, Nunan (1989) asserts tasks as “activities
that can stand alone as fundamental units that require comprehending, producing,
manipulating, or interacting in authentic language while attention is principally paid to
meaning rather than form”. Furthermore, tasks are seen as “complex and lengthy activities”
(Breen 1987, p.23).
Skehan (1998) shares his agreement that task is an activity in which:
- meaning is primary
- learners are not given other people‟s meaning to regurgitate
- There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities
- Task completion has some priority
- The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome
Also, these are five key characteristics of a task that he put forward in his definition
as indicated above.

In the final place, the researcher would like to borrow Willis‟s (1996) definition of
task as an indication of her agreement with Willis‟ stance, according to which “tasks are
activities where the target language is used by the learner for communicative purpose
(goal) in order to achieve an outcome” (p.53). A task usually involves real-world processes
of language use. In other words, it engages learners in a language activity that is normally
found in the real world or resembles those activities in real-world communication; for
example, completing a form, drawing pictures learners engage in asking and answering
questions to clarify and negotiating meaning. In this way, learners function primarily as
language users rather than language learners and thus their communication is more
purposeful and authentic.
Noticeably, all the definitions show that tasks are meaning-focused, goal-oriented
and outcome-achieved. Accordingly, learners are free to use whatever language they want in
order to convey their intended meaning and to sustain the interaction.
1.2.2. Components of a task
A task is viewed as a piece of meaning-focused work, which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing and interacting in the target language. Specifically,

7
task can be analyzed according to the goals, the input data, the activities derived from the
input, the settings and roles implied for teachers and learners. Nunan (1989, p.11)
graphically depicts a way to analyze components of a task, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: A framework for analyzing communicative tasks

Briefly, goals refer to the general intentions for the learning task. Inputs concern data,
verbal or non-verbal, which the individual has to deal with when performing a task.
Activities specify what the learner will actually perform based on goals and inputs. In
addition, there are specific roles for teacher and learner in a given setting. Roles refer to the
social and interpersonal relationship between learners and teachers in the task. Settings refer
to the classroom arrangement affecting interaction entailed in the task, such as pair work or
group work. When selecting, adapting, modifying and creating communicative tasks, Nunan

believes that specification of all these components is needed.
1.2.3. Types of tasks
1.2.3.1. General types of tasks
Actually, task types are numerous. Task types can be identified in a number of ways.
The classification of tasks can be different depending on the perspectives of the linguists or
researchers. Some classifications are general and others are more specific. The following is
on the different types of tasks described in the literature.
Some key task types can be found in the literature: problem-solving (Nunan, 1989;
Willis, 1996a); decision-making (Foster & Skehan, 1996); information gap (Doughty &Pica,
1986; Nunan , 1989); sharing personal experiences, attitudes and feelings (Foster& Skehan,
1996; Oxford, 1990; Willis, 1996a, 1996b); basic cognitive processes such as comparing or
matching (Nunan, 1989), listing and ordering/sorting (Willis, 1998b); question-and-answer,
picture stories, puzzles and games (Nunan, 1989); structured and semi-structured dialogues
(Nunan, 1989); and role-plays and simulations (Oxford, 1990; Richard &Rodgers, 2001).
Teacher role
Learner role
Settings
TASK
Goals
Inputs
Activities

8
Below are some task types proposed by Willis (1996a), who affects the interpretation
of TBLT the most. In her A framework for Task-based Learning, tasks are classified into
different groups namely:
- Listing tasks include brainstorming and fact- finding.
- Ordering and sorting tasks include sequencing, ranking, categorizing, classifying.
- Comparing tasks include matching, finding similarities and differences.
- Problem-solving tasks include analyzing real situations, analyzing hypothetical

situations, reasoning and decision-making.
- Sharing personal experiences tasks include narrating, describing, exploring and
explaining attitudes, opinions and recreations.
- Creative tasks include brainstorming, fact finding, ordering and sorting, comparing,
problem-solving and others.
1.2.3.2. Authentic tasks versus pedagogical tasks
Nunan (1989) suggests two broad categories: real-world tasks (such as using
telephone) and pedagogical tasks (such as information activities). Target tasks are much
more specific and more explicitly related to classroom instruction. Pedagogical tasks
include any of a series of techniques designed ultimately to teach students to perform the
target task. He defines authentic tasks as that takes real-world behavior and learner need into
consideration: “tasks which replicate or rehearse the communicative behaviors which will
be required of them in real world” (p.4).
Authentic tasks can be contrasted with pedagogical tasks (e.g. controlled grammar
practice activities such as gap-filling or transformation exercises), which focus on the
development of accuracy rather than language learning. Nunan (1989) supposes that target
tasks or authentic tasks refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom;
pedagogical tasks are those that occur in the classroom. According to Richard (2001), real-
world tasks “are designed to practice or rehearse those activities that are found to be
important and useful in the real world” (p.162). The distinction between these two types of
tasks seems so complex and those concerns have inhibited the implantation of TBLT in
English teaching.
1.2.4. Definitions of Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)
Over the last two decades, the term TBLT that employs communicative task as basic
unit has played an important role in current oral English teaching and consequently, has
continued to draw attention of language teachers and researchers. Task-based language
teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative
approach” (Littlewood, 2004).

9

Prabhu (1987) deserves credit for originating the task-based teaching and learning,
based on the concept that effective learning occurs when students are fully engaged in a
language task, rather than just learning about language. It is an overall approach to language
learning that views the tasks that learners do as central to the learning process. The learning
process is seen as a set of communicative tasks that are directly linked to curricular goals
TBLT involves students in performing a task which is an activity “where the target
language is used by the learners for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an
outcome” (Willis, 1996, p. 26), and is a real-world activity “that people do in everyday life
and which require language for their accomplishment” (Norris, et al., 1998, p. 33).
Littlewood (2004) holds that TBLT is a development within communicative approach.
Brown (1994) claims “TBL is a perspective that can be taken within a CLT framework”
(p.83). The aim of task-based teaching is to develop students‟ ability to communicate and
communication takes place through using the grammatical system of the language. Nunan
(1991) outlines five characteristics of Task-based Approach to language learning.
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language.
- The introduction of authentic texts (teaching materials) into the learning situation.
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also
on the learning process itself.
- An enhancement of the learner‟s own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning.
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside
the classroom.
Methodologically, task-based language teaching represents a realization of the
philosophy of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The researcher has been strongly
influenced by Nunan (1999, p.41) when he asserts that the role of task-based language
teaching is to stimulate a natural desire in learners to improve their language competence
by challenging them to complete meaningful tasks.
1.2.5. Task-based Learning Framework
Jane Willis (1996) designed precisely the framework for TBLT, which was then

supported by Richards Frost (2006) including three-phases: pre-task, task cycle (task,
planning and report); and language focus (analysis & practice), as shown in Figure 2.




10

Figure 2: Task-based Learning Framework

It is a useful framework for designing task-based lesson and below is the thorough
discussion of the phases.
Pre-task phase is usually the shortest stage in the framework. It can last between
three to fifteen minutes, depending on the learners‟ degree of familiarity with the topic and
the type of task. At pre-task phase, the teacher explore the topic with the class (by using a
picture, watching a video clip, or reading a text to lead into the topic), perhaps highlights
useful words and phrases but doesn‟t pre-teach vocabulary. The teacher helps students to
understand the task instruction. The student may hear recordings of others performing the
same task.

Pre-task (including topic & task)
The teacher
 Introduces & defines the topic
 Uses activities to help students recall/learn useful words & phrases
 May play a recording of others doing the same or similar task
The students
 Note down useful words & phrases from pre-task activities and/or the recording
 May spend a few minutes preparing for the task individuals
Task cycle
Task
The students
 Do the task in pairs/small groups. It may be
based on a reading/listening text
The teacher
 Acts as monitor & encourage students

Planning
The students

 Prepare to report to the class how they did the
task & what they discovered/decided
 Rehearse what they will say or draft a written
vision for the class to read
The teacher
 Ensure the purpose of the report is clear
 Act as language adviser
 Helps students rehearse oral reports or organize
written ones

Report
The students
 Present their spoken reports to the class
or circulate/display their written reports
The teacher
 Acts as chairperson, selecting who will
speak next, or ensuring all students read
most of the written reports
 May give brief feedback on content &
form
 May play a recording of others doing the
same or a similar task

Analysis
The students
 Do consciousness-raising activities to identify &
process specific language features from the task text
and/or transcript
 May ask about other features they have noticed
The teacher

 Review each analysis activities with the
class
 Brings other useful words, phrases
& patterns to students‟ attention
 May pickup on language items
from the report stage


Language focus
Practice
The teachers
 Conduct practice activities after analysis activities where
necessary to build confidence
The teacher
 practise words, phrases & patterns from the analysis
activities
 practise other features occurring in the task
text or report stage
 enter useful language items in their
language notebook

11
The task cycle phase is to offer learners chance to use whatever language they
already know to carry out the task, and then, to improve the language, under teacher
guidance, while planning their report of the task. During the task cycle, students are asked to
do the task in pairs or small groups while the teacher walks around and monitor their work
from a distance, encourage in supportive way everyone‟s attempt at communication in the
target language. The teacher formulates what they want to say, but not intervene to correct
errors of form. In the planning stage, students plan how they will report their work to the

class. They draft, rehearse the task while the teacher goes round to help students polish and
correct language or suggest phrases as well. This stage, in Willis‟s view, attaches teacher as
the role of linguistic adviser, who is in charge of giving feedback and helping students
correct, rephrase, and rehearse so as for them to draft the written report. When students are
ready, they come to the third stage – report stage. The teacher calls some pairs to report
briefly to the class orally or in writing so that everyone can compare findings. In the
meantime, the teacher chairs comments on the content of the report or may rephrase if
necessary.
The last phase is language focus, which allows students to have close study of some
of the specific features naturally occurring in the language used during the task cycle. By this
point, the students examine and discuss specific features of any texts they have used or
produced and the teacher may conduct some forms of practice. By this point, the learners
will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready
to focus on specific language forms that carry the meaning. Thus, the study of these forms is
clearly contextualized through the task itself.
1.2.6. Benefits of Task-based Language Teaching to learners
Learners who are not used to TBLT may not at first realize the advantages of it, and
they should take some time to understand what is required of them and be persuaded of the
benefit.
Bowen (2000) states that the main advantages of TBL are that language is used for
genuine purpose, meaning that communication should take place and that when preparing
the report for the class, students should consider language form in general rather than
concentration on a single form (as in traditional Presentation, Practice, Produce approach).
Some advantages have been summarized by Richard Frost (British Council, Turkey).
Unlike a PPP approach, the students are free of language control. In all three stages, they
must use all their language resources rather than just practicing one pre-selected item. A
natural context is developed from students‟ experiences with the language that is relevant to
them. It is hard to find a natural context in PPP approach when it is required to create context

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to present the language. It cannot be denied that the students will have many more chances to
expose authentic materials, the use of target language, motivation to learn, which all are
considered essential conditions for language learning (Willis, 1996). Moss also reports that
TBLT help ESL learners develop various skills because it creates situations where learners
need to communicate to get the job done (Moss & Van Duzer, 1998).
It is a strong communicative approach where students spend a lot of time
communicating. It is enjoyable and motivating. It makes specific lesson goals more evident
through movement towards success of task completion. Nunan (2006) states that task-based
teaching provides a flexible, functionally compatible and contextually sensitive approach for
many teachers as well as learners.
1.2.7. Challenges of implementing Task-based Language Teaching
Research into TBLT has indicated that there are problems associated with its
implementation. When teachers look at the focus on meaning as the main priority,
researchers are concerned with the patterns of interaction that may foster learning. It was
eventually found that there are some shortcomings of TBLT.
First of all, the approach may lead to the use of non-linguistic strategies in student
interactions. They may not pay attention to form or vocabulary as long as they can express
their meanings using chunks of words or body language or relying on background
knowledge.
Another issue is the importance of lexical elements in real life communication - that
is people use “lexicalized modes of processing” in their interactions. Therefore, language
course should then try to realize the flexibility factor of authentic language in terms of “the
lexical elements, time constraint, structural elements as well as creativity” (Skehan, 1996).
He also pointed out that TBL is often criticized for encouraging fluency at the
expense of accuracy. However, it was suggested that a balance of fluency and accuracy is
most preferred, for example, focus on form can be achieved during the planning time before
the report stage. However, it was questioned how inter-language development is promoted
by focus on form.
It is problematic to adopt a task-based approach if students are unwilling to interact
in the classroom using the target language as they are unable to „negotiate for meaning‟ due

to task complexity. Thus, the ability of teachers to adjust the difficulty of tasks may be able
to reduce reluctant students to speak more. Students with low levels of proficiency in the
target language may find it difficult to participate in oral communicative activities and, if the
exams used by an institution are grammar based, communicative fluency may not be
appropriate.

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In the final place, teachers‟ misconceptions of theories and methodology of task-
based teaching also result in failure in teaching speaking communicatively.
1.3. Speaking skill
Many language learners consider speaking ability the measure of knowing a language.
As for them, fluency is the ability to converse with others much more than the ability to read,
write or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the most important skill they
can acquire and they can assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments on spoken
communication. Accordingly, if learners do not learn how to speak or do not get
opportunities to speak in the language classroom, they may soon get de-motivated and lose
interest in learning.
The popularity of speaking tends to make us forget the concept that speaking in
foreign language acquisition is viewed as a skill rather than the speaking itself. Therefore, in
this study, the author would like to have discussion on speaking skill definitions instead of
only speaking itself.
1.3.1. Definitions of speaking skill
Speaking skill is man‟s ability in using language as a means of communication.
Bygate (2002) stated that: “we do not merely know how to assemble sentences in the
abstract: we have to produce them and adapt them in the circumstances. This means making
decisions rapidly, implementing them smoothly and adjusting our conversation as
unexpected problems appeared in our path.” (p.3). He highly appreciated speaking skill by
stating that speaking is the medium through which much language is learnt.
Clearly those learners do not learn by heart every word, sentence and then gather
them in the abstract but they learn how to speak in a particular situation. This means

speaking skill helps learners learn language as a means of communication in a real life. It
can develop learners‟ ability to speak fluently, correctly and clearly so that they can speak
out in every situation. By considering what good speakers do, what speaking tasks can be
used in class, and what specific needs learners report, teachers can help learners improve
their speaking and overall oral competency.
The notion of speaking skill should be reviewed in different methods of second
language teaching under a variety of theories and viewpoints. In Grammar-translation
method, the concept of speaking skill seems to be absent, for the theory is “students acquire
a foreign language by learning and explaining grammar rules” and the method is on the
basis of language study and written exercises rather than real life communication and speech
(To, 2009). Meanwhile, in Audio-lingual method, speaking concept tends to have a so-called
important change when the communicative competence and focus on oral skills are at top