Tóm tắt luận văn Nghiên cứu thành tố cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của một số thành ngữ cố định điển hình trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
οOο
ĐẶNG NGUYÊN GIANG
A STUDY ON STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC COMPONENTS
OF TYPICAL ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
(Nghiên cứu thành tố cấu trúc và ngữ nghĩa của một số thành ngữ
cố định (đặc ngữ) điển hình trong tiếng Anh và tiếng Việt)
Major: English Linguistics
Code: 62 22 15 01


Supervisors: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Võ Đại Quang
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Lê Hùng Tiến
HANOI – 2013
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Actually, studying idioms is not new; nevertheless, it has never been old. In
Vietnam, there exist three approaches in studying idioms: etymology, synchronic
evolution, comparison and contrastive analysis (Hành 2008). The studies under
original recovery and synchronic evolution are the backgrounds for comparison and
contrastive works. Several attempts have been made to work out the similarities
and differences between English and Vietnamese in terms of emotion expressing
idioms (Trào 2009), idiomatic verb phrases (Long 2010), idiom translation (Lan
2001; Phúc 2009), etc. An in-depth investigation of the structural and semantic
components of idioms will also offer excellent opportunities for cross-language
comparison and analysis.
Structurally, English and Vietnamese are very different. English is regarded
as a semi-inflectional language (Crystal 1997) while Vietnamese is completely
isolating. It is interesting, however, that several idioms in English have the same

structural patterns as those in Vietnamese. For example, like water off a duck’s
back in English and như nước đổ đầu vịt in Vietnamese are both prepositional
phrases. It is more interesting that the idiomatic meanings of the two idioms are
also similar, and they are paraphrasable as ‘have no effect’. In terms of structural
components, these idioms have both similarities and differences. They are similized
idioms introduced by prepositions as the first component parts (like in English and
như in Vietnamese). The differences lie in the rest of component parts forming the
idioms. The component parts after like in English together form a noun phrase
whereas those after như in Vietnamese together form a clause. To the best of my
knowledge, the structural components of idioms in both English and Vietnamese
have not yet been investigated in this way.
Although the component parts forming idioms expressing the same concepts
in English and Vietnamese are usually different, they have some features in
common. The idioms in both languages appear from totally transparent to the
totally opaque: transparent, i.e. all the components are explicit; semi-transparent,
i.e. some components are explicit (the meaning focused) and the other are implicit;
semi-opaque, i.e. all the components are implicit but possibly interpretable; and
opaque, i.e. all the components are implicit (Fernando & Flavell 1981; Fernando
1996). Investigating semantic components of idioms based on these semantic
1
criteria in both English and Vietnamese is still the gap. In addition, what main
factors lie behind the differences between the two languages in terms of the
formation of semantic components of idioms also need uncovering (Hành 2008).
2. Aims and Objectives of the Study
The study attempts to find out the similarities and differences between
English and Vietnamese idioms from structural and semantic perspectives. In order
to achieve the aims, the study is expected to reach the following objectives:
- to study how idioms are organized structurally and semantically in English
and Vietnamese;
- to establish the similarities and differences between English and

Vietnamese idioms in terms of structural and semantic components;
- to provide main factors lying behind the similarities and differences
between English and Vietnamese idioms.
3. Research Questions
i) How are idioms in English and Vietnamese organized structurally and
semantically?
ii) What are the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese
idioms in terms of structural and semantic components?
iii) What main factors lie behind the similarities and differences between
English and Vietnamese idioms?
4. Scope of the Study
The present study focuses on everyday idioms selected from recently
published dictionaries (see Section 6.3).
5. Contributions of the Study
Scientifically, a common theory on idioms is applied to both English and
Vietnamese. This approach helps to find out the similarities and differences
between English and Vietnamese idioms in terms structural and semantic
components.
Practically, the work will provide assistance to English-speaking learners of
Vietnamese and Vietnamese learners of English to distinguish one kind of idioms
from others in each language. The work will also enable learners to tell when
idioms in English and Vietnamese are similar and different, which is likely to be
useful for their study. Language teachers will be aided to help their learners reach
this communicative goal (see Section 3 in Part C). For translation, knowledge of
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idioms from this work will help translators find closest equivalents to the
expression in the source language.
6. Methodology
6.1. Theoretical Framework
In tems of structural components of idioms, the models of Immediate

Constituent Analysis suggested by Bloomfield (1933) are used in the present study.
The semantic components of idioms in the current study are analyzed according to
Katz & Fodor’s (1963) componential theory.
6.2. Analytical Framework
In the present inquiry, the theories of contrastive linguistics of König and
Gast (2008) and Chaturvedi (1973) are applied to the investigation of the idioms
collected.
In order to carry a contrastive study, Chaturvedi (1973) suggests some
guiding principles as follows:
(i) to analyse the mother tongue and the target language independently and
completely; (ii) to compare the two languages item-wise-item at all levels of their
structure; (iii) to arrive at the categories of a) similar features, b) partially similar
features, c) dissimilar features - for the target language; and (iv) to arrive at
principles of text preparation, test framing and target language teaching in general.
6.3. Data Collection
In order to collect the data, a working definition of an idiom has been
established in the present study (see Section 1.1.1). Any idiom selected in both
English and Vietnamese satisfies the criteria the definition for working involves.
Data for the present analysis of English and Vietnamese are mainly collected
from the following dictionaries:
English
Bình, P. V. (1999). Tục ngữ nước Anh và thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu hình ảnh
[English picturesque idioms]. Hải Phòng: Nxb Hải Phòng.
Cambridge Idioms Dictionary (2006). (2
nd
ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Collins COBUILD Idioms Dictionary (2002). (2
nd
ed.). UK: Harper Collins

Publisher.
Cowie, A. P., Mackin, R., & McCaig, I. R. (1993). Oxford Dictionary of English
Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Siefring, J. (2005). Oxford Dictionary of Idioms. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vietnamese
Lân, N. (2003). Từ điển thành ngữ và tục ngữ Việt Nam. Hà Nội: Nxb Văn học.
Lực, N., & Đang, L. V. (2009). (3
rd
ed.). Thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Khoa học Xã hội.
Minh, T. H. (2007). Đi tìm điển tích thành ngữ [Seeking idioms’ classic references].
Hà Nội: Nxb Thông Tấn.
Ý, N. N., Hành, H. V, Khang, N. V., Thại, L. X., & Thành, P. X. (1998). Từ điển
giải thích thành ngữ tiếng Việt [Dictionary of Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội:
Nxb Giáo dục.
Ý, N. N. (2002). Từ điển thành ngữ tiếng Việt phổ thông [A dictionary of common
Vietnamese idioms]. Hà Nội: Nxb Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội.
The dictionaries above are chosen because of several specific reasons.
Firstly, they are quite popular and currently available. Secondly, they cover a large
number of the idioms which people are likely to find in everyday English as well as
Vietnamese. Thirdly, most of idiom types can be found in these dictionaries in a
large number. And finally, the dictionaries satisfy the diachronic perspective
because the examples for illustrations are mostly from literal works, magazines and
newspapers. The collected data forms a corpus under three categories: symmetrical
idioms (231 for English and 2,343 for Vietnamese), similized idioms (516 for
English and 699 for Vietnamese), and non-symmetrical idioms (3,387 for English
and 1,011 for Vietnamese).
6.4. Data Analysis
Due to the aims, the objectives, and the scope of the study, componential

analysis, describing, comparing and contrasting are regarded as the main methods
used in the present dissertation. The study makes use of the Vietnamese language
as the target and the English one as the source language (the base language). In
some cases, we may use the opposite (the English language as the target and the
Vietnamese one as the source language).
6.5. Procedure
Generally, the procedure of the present study is divided into four stages
(Chaturvedi 1973; König and Gast 2008) (see Section 6.2):
(i) From our corpus, we first analyze the mother tongue and the target
language independently and completely in terms of structural and semantic
4
components of idioms according to the theoretical framework (see Section 6.1).
(ii) After that, we compare the idioms in the two languages item-wise-item at
all levels of their structural and semantic components. We also seek the underlying
factors affecting the formation of semantic components of idioms in both English
and Vietnamese (Hành 2008; Lijie 2010).
(iii) Then, we arrive at the categories of a) structural and semantic
components of idioms found in both languages, b) structural and semantic
components of idioms unique to English as well as Vietnamese. We also
investigate the regularities for the established similarities and differences.
(iv) And finally, we give some suggestions for idiom teaching and translation
based on the findings.
7. Structure of the Study
The present study consists of three major parts, in addition to the appendices
and the references.
Part A, introduction, consists of the rationale, the aims and objectives, the
research questions, the scope, the contributions, the methodology, and the structure
of the study.
Part B, development, is divided into three chapters including chapter 1:
Literature Review, chapter 2: Structural Components of English and Vietnamese

Idioms, and chapter 3: Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms.
The last part is conclusion which includes the recapitulation of the study as
well as the conclusions and some suggestions for implications achieved from the
discussion in the dissertation and for further studies.
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PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
1.1. Theoretical Background
1.1.1. Idioms Defined
In general, most of the linguists (Hornby 1995; Seidl and McMordie 1988;
Fernando 1996; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Dân 1986; Hành 2008; etc) share the same
point of view that an idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked
out by looking at the meanings of its individual constituents.
In the present study, given below is regarded as a summary of the defining
features of an idiom. Such an idiom
(i) is a fixed unit whose components cannot be varied or varied under
definable control;
ii) is regarded as a complex scene with a bipartite semantic structure: a literal
reading and an idiomatic meaning;
(iii) has the meaning which is usually different from the meanings of the
combination of its components;
(iv) expresses a pure concept.
1.1.2. Idioms from Traditional View
Traditionally, it is believed that idioms are unpredictable or non-
compositional (Chafe 1970; Chomsky 1965, 1980; Katz 1973; Fernando & Flavell
1981; Mệnh 1972; Châu 1981; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc). It means that the
meaning of an idiom cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents.
According to traditional view, the meaning of an idiom is the special
chemical mixture of all components’ meaning, which is completely new in quality.
It means that there is no link between the literal reading and the idiomatic meaning.

However, in fact, there exist a lot of idioms, the idiomatic meanings of which can
be derived from the meanings of their component parts, i.e. their syntax is
correlative. Indeed, the traditional view cannot be applied to explain all types of
idioms. It can be considered as the limitation of this view.
1.1.3. Idioms from Cognitive View
From cognitive view, most idioms are believed to be analyzable and have
meanings that are at least partly motivated (Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995;
Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al. 1994; Fernando 1996; Taylor 2002;
Langlotz 2006, etc).
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Gibbs (1990, 1995) supposes that most idioms are motivated by cognitive –
semantic mechanisms such as metaphors, metonymies and conventional
knowledge. Indeed, the psychological experiments conducted by Gibbs (1990,
1995) prove that the figurative meanings of most idioms are not arbitrary. Sharing
the same points with the authors above, in the present study we once again suppose
that most idioms in both English and Vietnamese are analyzable and have meanings
which are at least partly motivated through the component parts forming idioms.
1.1.4. Idioms from Taxonomic View
In English, several attempts have been made to classify idioms (Makkai
1972; Fernando & Flavell 1981; Seidl & McMordie 1988; Cowie, Mackin &
McCaig 1993; Nunberg et al. 1994; Fernando 1996; etc). From cognitive view,
Nunberg et al. (1994) classify English idioms into two types: idiomatically
combining expressions (or idiomatic combinations) and idiomatic phrases. More
specifically, Fernando (1996) divides English idioms into three categories: pure
idioms, semi-idioms and literal idioms. It is clear that English idioms are
traditionally classified due to their synctactic properties whereas the classification
of idioms from cognitive view is based on their semantic properties.
In Vietnamese, the category of idioms is usually established according to the
forms (Lực and Đang 1978; Đức 1995; Hành 2008; etc). According to Đức (1995),
Vietnamese idioms can be divided into three main groups: idioms with symmetrical

structures, idioms with comparison structures, and idioms with non-symmetrical
structures. Hành (2008) classifies Vietnamese idioms into symmetrical figurative,
non-symmetrical figurative and similized. Each main category is subdivided into
smaller categories.
1.1.5. Idioms from Cultural View
Idioms which are regarded as a form of a language reflect culture in a
concentrated way (Zhang 2007). More particularly, Lijie (2010) points out that the
cultural differences between English and Chinese on idioms origins are dominated
by different living circumstance, different historical allusion, different religions and
beliefs, and different traditions and customs.
Fernando and Flavell (1981) outline the cultural preoccupations, the 'world
view' implicit in the idioms of English. More specifically and generally, Bình
(1999) supposes that geographical feature, habitat, mode of production, cultural
character, national thought, etc define the characteristics of idioms of each
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language. Sharing the same point of view with Bình (1999), Lan (2001) emphasizes
the role of the national thought in defining the images compared by giving a
comparative table among Vietnamese, English and Russian in terms of similized
idioms. Through this table, she comments that the images used to compare are very
popular things in everyday lives of the people in each nation. Additionally, Hành
(2008) does not only pay attention to structural system, he also particularly focuses
on the use and artistic value of idioms. From cultural perspective, he comments that
underlying cultural factors behind idioms need uncovering.
1.1.6. Idioms in the Relationship to Other Linguistic Units
Several linguists (Mệnh 1972; Lực & Đang 1978; Đức 1995; Hành 2008;
Trào 2009; etc) have made attempts to distinguish idioms from some of other
linguistic units such as collocations, proverbs, clichés and catchphrases, etc.
However, they in fact usually overlap to some extent. In the present inquiry, idioms
and some of other linguistic units are distinguished according to their structural
realization, relationship among components, meaning, nominative function,

syntactic function, and denotation.
1.2. Previous Research
1.2.1. Previous Research Works on Idioms in English
Idioms in English are studied in terms of several aspects such as grammar,
semantics, rhetoric, pragmatics, etc which are investigated from different views.
However, the majority of scholars pay their attention to the two approaches.
Scholars (Chafe 1970; Chomsky 1965, 1980; Katz 1973; Fernando & Flavell 1981;
Seidl and McMordie 1988, Cowie, Mackin & McCaig 1993; etc) who adopt the
first approach are more structurally orientated. They describe the idioms and their
idiomaticity in terms of one or more structural properties. The idiomatologists
(Geeraets 1995; Gibbs 1990, 1995; Kövecses & Szabo 1996; Nunberg et al. 1994;
Fernando 1996; Taylor 2002; Langlotz 2006, etc) who adopt the second approach
look on idiomaticity as manifesting underlying conceptual design of the language.
Such an approach leads to the nature of cognition itself and hence has strong
psycholinguistic implications.
1.2.2. Previous Research Works on Idioms in Vietnamese
In Vietnamese, although there exist several studies on idioms, most of the
scholars (Tu 1976; Châu 1981; Thản 1963; Mệnh 1986; Giáp 1985; Lê 1976; San
1974; Hành /1973/1976/2008; Việt 1981; Giáp 1988, Hùng 1988, Hiển 1994;
8
Khánh 1977; Đức 1995; etc) focus on the forms and meanings of idioms from
traditional view. It seems that studies on idioms from cognitive view have not been paid due
attention.
1.2.3. Previous Research Works on Idioms in English and Vietnamese under
Comparison and Contrastive Analysis
In Vietnam, some attempts have been made to work out the similarities and
differences between English and Vietnamese idioms (Lan 2001; Giang 2009; Dũng
2011; Phúc 2009; Trào 2009; Long 2010; etc). To the best of my knowledge, there
have not been any studies on idioms in terms of structural and semantic
components in both English and Vietnamese carried out before.

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CHAPTER 2: STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
2.1. Canonical Structural Components
2.1.1. Symmetrical Idioms
2.1.1.1. Realization
In the present study, a symmetrical idiom is generally regarded as one which
has two opposite component parts (A and B). And these two parts are usually
parallel. It is also realized in the current thesis that 5.59% of our English data are
symmetrical idioms whereas symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese are 57.81%.
2.1.1.2. Structural Patterns
In our English data, symmetrical idioms can be noun phrases, adjective
phrases, adverbial phrases, verb phrases, or prepositional phrases. These phrases
have different functions indicated in the grammatical code. Symmetrical idioms in
our Vietnamese data can be noun phrases, verb phrases, or sentences.
2.1.1.3. Structural Components
In English, symmetrical idioms usually have three components, one of which
is a connector. Some may contain more than three components, but one of their
constituents must be a connector. The connectors are used to combine two
symmetrical parts of the idioms. This can be specified in A and B, A or B, A but B,
A to B, or A, B. A (usually corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun phrase, an
adjective/adjective phrase, an adverb/adverbial phrase, a verb/verb phrase, a
prepositional phrase, a pronoun, or a subordinator.
Generally, symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese are regarded as idioms having
two opposite parts (A, B). A and B are together combined by the rhythm of the
syllables. The number of syllables of the symmetrical idioms is usually even. There
is no connector between A and B of symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese; however,
these two opposite parts are always parallel. A (corresponding with B) can be a
noun phrase, a verb phrase, an adjective phrase, or a clause.
2.1.2. Similized Idioms

2.1.2.1. Realization
In the present study, similized idioms are regarded as fixed groups of words
which are formed by their specific comparative means such as as…as, like, as, etc
in English (Seidl & McMordie 1988) and như, tày, đẳng, etc in Vietnamese (Hành
10
2008). Our investigation reveals that 12.48% of our English data are similized
idioms, and Vietnamese similized idioms in our data are 17.25%.
2.1.2.2. Structural Patterns
In our English data, similized idioms can be adjective phrases, adverbial phrases,
verb phrases, prepositional phrases, or clauses. Similized idioms in our Vietnamese data
can be adjective phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, or sentences.
2.1.2.3. Structural Components
A similized idiom is singled out by its specific structure of comparison. The
structural components of similized idioms are categorized as as A as B, A like B,
[…] like B, or […] as B in English, and A như B, (A) như B, như B, or AB in
Vietnamese.
2.1.3. Non-symmetrical idioms
2.1.3.1. Realization
A non-symmetrical idiom does not contain two symmetrical parts, or it is not
formed by its specific comparative means such as as…as, like, as, etc in English
and như, tựa, bằng, tày, etc in Vietnamese. Our investigation reveals that there are
81.93% of non-symmetrical idioms in our English data whereas Vietnamese non-
symmetrical idioms are 24.94%.
2.1.3.2. Structural Patterns
In our English data, non-symmetrical idioms can be noun phrases, adjective
phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases, verb phrases, clauses, or
sentences. Non-symmetrical idioms in our Vietnamese data can be noun phrases,
adjective phrases, verb phrases, or sentences.
2.1.3.3. Structural Components
Non-symmetrical idioms are quite common in English. The structural

components of these idioms are classified under three general headings: phrase,
clause and sentence. The phrase heading is sub-divided into noun phrases,
adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, adverbial phrases, and verb phrases. The
clause heading consists of non-symmetrical idioms as clauses introduced by
subordinators such as if, unless, when, while, etc. The sentence heading consists of
non-symmetrical idioms as sentences, i.e. the patterns of idioms are sentences.
They can be simple, compound, or complex sentences. The simple sentences are
specified in AB (A is the subject which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being
the predicate (a verb phrase)). A coordinator B is applied to the compound
11
sentences (both A and B are clauses). The complex sentences are possibly specified
in A subordinator B (both A and B are clauses), or A which is a superordinate
containing itself non-finite clause(s). In some cases, the idioms can start with
coordinators or subordinators; however, they are still regarded as compound or
complex sentences.
In Vietnamese, the structural components of non-symmetrical idioms are
classified under two general headings: phrase and sentence (Hành 2008: 78). The
phrase heading is sub-divided into noun phrases, adjective phrases, and verb
phrases. The sentence heading consists of non-symmetrical idioms as sentences,
i.e. the structural patterns of idioms are sentences. They can be simple, compound,
or complex sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject
which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)). AB is
applied to the compound sentences (A is a clause and B is also a clause). The
complex sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject which is usually a clause
and B is the predicate (verb phrase)).
2.2. Non-Canonical Structural Components
In the present study, we suppose that unfrozen idioms can be idiom variants
or synonymous idioms. Indeed, the fixedness of idioms cannot be denied because
idioms and their variants or synonyms are different ones. In order to study the
structural components of these idioms, an investigation is carried out among 200

pairs of idioms having same contents (100 in English and 100 in Vietnamese).
2.2.1. Idiom Variants
2.2.1.1. Realization
Idiom variants are idioms having the same contents, structural patterns, and
mental images (mental images are expressed by different components belonging to
the same semantic field). It is realized in this thesis that 46% of our English data
are idiom variants, and 52% of our Vietnamese data are idiom variants.
2.2.1.2. Structural Components
The structural components of idiom variants are divided into substitution,
modification, partial deletion, component reversal and truncated reversal in
English, and substitution, modification, partial deletion and component reversal in
Vietnamese.
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2.2.2. Synonymous Idioms
2.2.2.1. Realization
Synonymous idioms are idioms having the same contents but different
structural patterns, or having the same contents and structural patterns but different
mental images (mental images are expressed by different components belonging to
different semantic fields). The present study reveals that 54% of our English data,
and 48% of our Vietnamese data are synonymous idioms.
2.2.2.2. Structural Components
The structural components of synonymous idioms are classified as
substitution, pattern transformation and passivization in English, and substitution,
literalized transformation, language transformation and pattern transformation in
Vietnamese.
2.3. Structural Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms Compared
2.3.1. Similarities
2.3.1.1. Canonical Structural Components Found in both Languages
The structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in our data in both languages
can be noun phrases or verb phrases. The structural components of symmetrical

idioms collected conform to two symmetrical component parts (A connector B in
English and AB in Vietnamese). A (corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun
phrase, adjective phrase, or a verb/verb phrase.
The structural patterns of similized idioms collected in both English and
Vietnamese can be adjective phrases, verb phrases, or prepositional phrases. The
collected similized idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B in English and A
như B in Vietnamese. A can be an adjective, or a verb, and B can be a noun, a noun
phrase, or a clause. These idioms are also constructed in like/as B in English and
như B in Vietnamese. B can be a noun phrase, or a clause.
The structural patterns of non-symmetrical idioms collected in both
languages can be noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, or sentences. The
sentences are subdivided into simple sentences, compound sentences and complex
sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject which can be a
noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)).
2.3.1.2. Non-Canonical Structural Components Found in both Languages
The possible variabilities of idiom variants collected in both languages
conform to substitution, modification, partial deletion, and component reversal. The
13
substitution happens to verbs, nouns, or adjectives. The modification only involves
adjectives. The partial deletion refers to predicate deletion and verb deletion.
Although the component reversal including complete reversal and partial reversal
appears in both languages, this kind of variation is more multiform and more
popular in Vietnamese.
The variabilities conform to substitution (happening to nouns belonging to
different semantic fields) and pattern transformation. The pattern transformation is
more multiform and more complicated in English.
2.3.2. Differences
Apart from the features in common, the analysis of the data has revealed
some significant differences between English and Vietnamese idioms. The typical
difference lies in the distribution of idiom types.

The investigation shows a quite different rate of similized idioms (12.48% in
English and 17.25% in Vietnamese). Symmetrical idioms are far more prevalent in
Vietnamese than those in English, with as many as 57.81% in Vietnamese as
against the figure of 5.59% in English. On the contrary, English shows a
remarkably high rate of non-symmetrical idioms (81.93%) while Vietnamese
displays a much lower rate (24.94%).
The investigation also reveals that idiom variants (46%) and synonymous
idioms (54%) in English share the quite similar rate of distribution. In Vietnamese,
idiom variants are only a bit more common than synonymous idioms. Among 100
pairs of Vietnamese idioms having the same contents, 52% are idiom variants, and
synonymous idioms are 48%.
2.3.2.1. Canonical Structural Components Unique to English
Firstly, the structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in our English data can
be adjective phrases, adverbial phrases, or prepositional phrases, which are not
found in Vietnamese data. The structural components of symmetrical idioms
collected in English conform to two symmetrical component parts usually
combined by a connector, i.e. they are constructed in A connector B which usually
consists of three components. A (as well as B) can be an adjective, an adverb, an
adverbial phrase, a prepositional phrase, a pronoun, or a subordinator.
Secondly, the structural patterns of similized idioms found in English but not
in Vietnamese can be adverbial phrases, or clauses. For similized idioms
constructed in (as) A as B/A like B, A can be an adverb, or a verb phrase.
14
Finally, the structural patterns of non-symmetrical idioms collected in English
can be prepositional phrases, or clauses, which are not found in Vietnamese.
2.3.2.2. Non-Canonical Structural Components Unique to English
Although the possible variabilities of idiom variants in both English and
Vietnamese involve substitution, modification and partial deletion, to some extent
they show several internal differences. Some English idioms can lexically accept
the substitution of adverbs, conjunctions and articles. Adverbs can also be used to

modify the idioms. The parts that can be deleted in some idioms are several types
of modification. The truncated reversal is also distinctive in English. Additionally,
the possible variabilities of synonymous idioms in English involve the substitution
of prepositions and passivization, which are not found in Vietnamese.
2.3.2.3. Canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese
The structural patterns of symmetrical idioms in our Vietnamese data can be
sentences, which are not found in English data. The structural components of
symmetrical idioms collected in Vietnamese conform to two symmetrical parts
without any connectors, i.e. they are constructed in AB which usually consists of
four components. A (as well as B) can be a clause.
The structural patterns of similized idioms distinctively found in Vietnamese
can be sentences. For similized idioms constructed in A như B, A can be a noun or
a noun phrase for B being a verb phrase. Similized idioms are also constructed in
như B, and B can be a verb phrase. For AB similized idioms, A can be an adjective,
and B can be a noun or a verb.
2.3.2.4. Non-Canonical Structural Components Unique to Vietnamese
The possible variabilities of idiom variants found in Vietnamese but not in
English involve modification (model particle modification and noun modification)
and partial deletion (adjective deletion, preposition deletion and noun deletion).
The possible variabilities of synonymous idioms to be distinctive in Vietnamese
involve the substitution (happening to clauses, multi-parts of speech, or different
parts of speech), the literalized transformation, and the language transformation.
The literalized transformation means that some literal idioms can be transformed
from figurative ones. The language transformation refers to Sino-Vietnamese
idioms Vietnamized, i.e. the base idioms are Sino-Vietnamese, and their variants
are literally Vietnamese.
15
CHAPTER 3: SEMANTIC COMPONENTS OF ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE IDIOMS
3.1. Canonical Semantic Components

The discussion of canonical semantic components of idioms in English and
Vietnamese falls into three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical,
similized, and non-symmetrical. We will examine two issues which focus attention
on each idiom type in terms of semantic components: motivation degree and
composition.
3.1.1. Semantic Components of Symmetrical Idioms
3.1.1.1. Motivation Degree of Semantic Components
In our collected data, there exist three degrees of motivation of symmetrical
idioms: transparent (11.69% in English and 5.34% in Vietnamese, semi-opaque
(88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese) and opaque (0% in English and
5.20% in Vietnamese).
3.1.1.2. Composition of Semantic Components
As presented in Chapter 2, the structural components of symmetrical idioms
are under construction of A and B, A or B, A but B, A to B, or A, B in English, and
AB in Vietnamese. The common structural feature of these idioms in both
languages is that they always contain two symmetrical component parts, i.e. A and
B are always available. Indeed, the composition of semantic components of
symmetrical idioms can be motivated by the relationship between A and B. This
relationship is divided into two types: coordination and subordination (Hành 2008):
The coordination is sub-divided into balance, focus, alternative and alternative
concession. The subordination refers to the symmetrical idioms whose two
component parts (A and B) are dependent. Semantically, the dependent relationship
between A and B is cause and effect, purpose, manner, or mutuality.
3.1.2. Semantic Components of Similized Idioms
3.1.2.1. Motivation Degree of Semantic Components
In our collected data, there also exist two degrees of motivation of similized
idioms: semi-transparent (77.52% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese and semi-
opaque (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese).
3.1.2.2. Composition of Semantic Components
The structural components of similized idioms are constructed in as A as B,

A like B or like/as B in English, and A như B, như B or AB in Vietnamese. The
16
typical feature of these idioms in both languages is that they have both topic of
comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be omitted.
Existentially, the relationship between A and B can be visibility or invisibility.
The composition of semantic components of similized idioms is also
motivated by the relationship between A and B. In fact, B can be the degree, the
manner, or the attribute of A.
3.1.3. Semantic Components of Non-symmetrical Idioms
3.1.3.1. Motivation Degree of Semantic Components
Semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms in both English and
Vietnamese also involve the analyzability of the constituents. Due to the
relationship between the literal reading and idiomatic meaning, the motivation
degree of non-symmetrical idioms in English is divided into transparent (3.37%),
semi-opaque (91.14%) and opaque (5.49%) in English, and semi-opaque (95.25%)
and opaque (4.75%) in Vietnamese.
3.1.3.2. Composition of Semantic Components
The structural components of non-symmetrical idioms can be constructed in
various forms. Therefore, the composition of semantic components is very
complicated; in some cases, it is impossible to explain the relationship between the
component parts. Based on the the transparent-opaque axis (Fernando & Flavell
1981), the composition of semantic components of non-symmetrical idioms is
divided into correlativeness and non-correlativeness.
3.2. Non-Canonical Semantic Components
3.2.1. Semantic Components of Idiom Variants
3.2.1.1. Realization
Idioms are regarded as variants of each other when they have the same
contents and structural patterns but different constituents belonging to the same
semantic field (see Section 2.2.1.1). In both English and Vietnamese, there exist
base idioms, from which several idioms having the same contents are formed.

However, it is not, in fact, always easy to realize which idioms are the base ones.
The base idioms can be varied by substitution, modification, partial deletion, and
component reversal (see Section 2.2.1.2).
3.2.1.2. Semantic Nuance
Idiomatic meanings themselves involve both meanings and nuances (Hành
2008). In general, idiom variants in both English and Vietnamese usually have the
17
same meanings as well as nuances. External modification such as adverbial
modification in English and modal particle modification in Vietnamese can be
regarded as an exception because it is only used to emphasize the idiomatic
meaning of the idiom as a whole, and it does not affect its nuance.
Nevertheless, internal modification (adjectival and noun modification)
usually leads to different nuances of idiom variants. Although it is very difficult to
give a satisfactory analysis, with the intuition of a native speaker, we can realize the
different nuances of the idiom variants in several examples.
3.2.2. Semantic Components of Synonymous Idioms
3.2.2.1. Realization
Idioms are said to be synonymous when they have similar contents but
different structural patterns or have the same structural patterns but different
components belonging to different semantic fields (see Section 2.2.2.1). In English,
synonymous idioms involve substitution (belonging to different semantic fields),
pattern transformation, and passivization. Substitution (belonging to different
semantic fields), literalized transformation, language transformation and pattern
transformation are regarded as different types of synonymous idioms in Vietnamese
(see Section 2.2.2.2).
3.2.2.2. Semantic Nuance
The meanings of synonymous idioms are semantically similar, but their
nuances are completely different. Each of synonymous idioms has its own nuance.
It is easy to realize that the nuance of each synonymous idiom comes from the
mental images originally creating idioms. Therefore, we can regard the base idioms

and their synonyms as notional synonymous units. It means that units expressing
the same notion or the same fact do not only have different figurative styles but
also different nuances.
3.3. Formation of Semantic Components of idioms
3.3.1. Formation Mechanism
In this section, we have examined several issues which focus attention on the
formation mechanism of semantic components of idioms as the external semantic
cognition. Metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge are regarded as the
concretization of external semantic cognition. More particularly, the idiomatic
meanings come from the cognition of the world and human activities through
mental images.
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3.3.2. Main Factors Affecting the Formation of Semantic Components
In this section, our discussion on main factors affecting the formation of
idiomatic meanings in English shares much with Lijie (2010). As presented above,
the semantic components of idioms are motivated by the external semantic
cognition governed by several different implicit factors: living circumstance,
historical allusion, religions and beliefs, traditions and customs, etc (Lijie 2010).
3.4. Semantic Components of English and Vietnamese Idioms Compared
3.4.1. Similarities
3.4.1.1. Canonical Semantic Components Found in both Languages
Symmetrical idioms in our data in both languages can be transparent, or
semi-opaque. The composition of semantic components of symmetrical idioms in
both English and Vietnamese can be motivated by the relationship between A and
B. Coordination is shared by both languages, i.e. A and B are independent.
Similized idioms can be semi-transparent, or semi-opaque. The typical
semantic feature of similized idioms in both languages is that they have both topic
of comparison (A) and subject compared (B) whether in some cases A can be
omitted. Additionally, in the semantic composition of similized idioms, B can be
the degree of A, the manner of A, or the attribute of A.

Non-symmetrical idioms can be semi-opaque, or opaque. The semantic
composition of non-symmetrical idioms is the random relationship among
component parts. In some cases, they are regarded as lexemes (Fernando & Flavell
1981). The constituents forming the idioms are pseudo-lexemes.
3.4.1.2. Non-Canonical Semantic Components Found in both Languages
Idiom variants are available in both English and Vietnamese. In general, the
meanings and nuances of these idioms are usually the same. This is the typical
semantic feature of idiom variants because they are formed due to the same mental
images.
However, the base idioms and their synonyms usually have the similar
meanings but different nuances. The synonymous idioms in both languages share
this semantic feature.
3.4.1.3. Formation of semantic components found in both Languages
In both languages, the formation mechanism of semantic components of
idioms is regarded as the external semantic cognition which is motivated by
metaphors, metonymies, or conventional knowledge. More particularly, the
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idiomatic meanings come from the cognition of the world and human activities
through mental images.
The formation of semantic components of idioms is commonly affected by
living circumstance (geographical environment, climate), historical allusion
(historical events, fables and mythologies), religions and beliefs, traditions and
customs (food and cooking, animals, laboring).
3.4.2. Differences
Apart from the features shared by both languages, the analysis of the data has
revealed some significant differences between English and Vietnamese idioms in
terms of semantic components. The primary difference lies in the motivation
degrees of semantic components of different idiom types.
The investigation reveals the different rate of semi-transparent similized
idioms (77.52% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese) and semi-opaque similized

idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese). Transparent symmetrical
idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.69% in English
and 5.34% in Vietnamese). Both languages share a quite similar rate of semi-
opaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese. The
opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only distinctive in Vietnamese. English
shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while
Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%). On the contrary, semi-opaque non-
symmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those
(91.14%) in English. Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are 3.37%
while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese.
3.4.2.1. Canonical Semantic Components Unique to English
Non-symmetrical idioms in English can be transparent, i.e. the idiomatic
meanings of these idioms can be derived from the meanings of their individual
constituents. However, the transparent non-symmetrical idioms are not found in our
Vietnamese data.
The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves mutualit
y, i.e. the appearance of A brings about B. This type of relationship in the semantic
composition is unique to English.
3.4.2.2. Canonical Semantic Components Unique to Vietnamese
Symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese can be opaque, i.e. the component parts
of the idiom are completely implicit.
20
The subordination between A and B of symmetrical idioms involves cause
and effect (i.e. A is regarded as the reason for B being the result), purpose (i.e. B is
the purpose of A), and manner (i.e. B is the manner of A, or vice versa).
The existential relationship between A and B of similized idioms refers to
semi-transparency, i.e. B is available and A is omitted but possibly deduced from B.
3.4.2.3. Differences between English and Vietnamese in Terms of Main Factors
that Affect the Shaping of Semantic Components of Idioms
The findings of the study show that the differences between English and

Vietnamese in terms of the origins of semantic components of idioms are
dominated by different living circumstance (geographical environment, climate),
different historical allusion (historical events, fables and mythologies, literary
works), different religions and beliefs, different traditions and customs (food and
cooking, animals). Indeed, ‘as the crystals of human languages, idioms mirror
human wisdom in the process of conceptualization of the world. Human life is
colorful and idioms correspondently reflect various social activities’ (Zhang 2007).
People use idioms to express their experience; thus, the semantic components of
idioms come from different origins. It means that idioms reflect the cultural
influence of a language. It is the biggest difference between English and
Vietnamese in terms of the formation of semantic components of idioms.
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PART C: CONCLUSION
1. Recapitulation
An investigation of idioms in English and Vietnamese in terms of structural
and semantic components is carried out in the present study. The findings of the
study are concerned with the similarities and differences between English and
Vietnamese idioms in terms of (1) structural components, and (2) semantic
components and their formation. A common theoretical framework on idioms is
applied to both English and Vietnamese. The canonical structural and semantic
components involve three types of idioms existing in our data: symmetrical,
similized, and non-symmetrical. The non-canonical structural components refer to
two types of idioms: idiom variants and synonymous idioms. The semantic
components of each idiom type involve the motivation degrees, the association
between the literal readings and the idiomatic meanings, and the semantic
composition of component parts. The formation mechanism of the semantic
components of idioms is motivated by external semantic cognition including
metaphors, metonymies and conventional knowledge.
2. Conclusions
2.1. In the present study, a common theoretical framework on idioms is

applied to both English and Vietnamese. This theory involves three types of idioms
existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành
2008). The structural components of these idioms are coded in A, B, M, X, etc,
which are then realized, described and analyzed according to grammatical rules
suggested by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik (1985).
Our investigation reveals that there is a quite different rate of similized
idioms (12.48% in English and 17.25% in Vietnamese). English shows a
remarkably high rate of non-symmetrical idioms (81.93%) while Vietnamese
displays a much lower rate (24.94%). On the contrary, symmetrical idioms are far
more prevalent in Vietnamese (57.81%) than those in English (5.59%). Vietnamese
is a language which possesses tones and rhythms. Symmetrical idioms in
Vietnamese also possess a quality of rhythm, which results from the rules of
harmony in sound (Hành 2008) when constituent words are combined. This is the
reason why symmetrical idioms are so popular in Vietnamese.
The canonical structural components of idioms in English share some
similarities with those in Vietnamese. For non-symmetrical idioms, the structural
22
components involve noun phrases, adjective phrases, verb phrases, and sentences.
The sentences are subdivided into simple sentences, compound sentences and
complex sentences. The simple sentences are specified in AB (A is the subject
which can be a noun or noun phrase for B being the predicate (verb phrase)).
Similized idioms are constructed in (as) A as B/A like B in English and A như B in
Vietnamese. A can be an adjective, or a verb, and B can be a noun, a noun phrase,
or a clause. These idioms are also constructed in like/as B in English and như B in
Vietnamese. B can be a noun phrase, or a clause. For symmetrical idioms, the
structural components conform to two symmetrical component parts (A connector
B in English and AB in Vietnamese). A (corresponding with B) can be a noun/noun
phrase, or a verb/verb phrase.
Although both languages have some similarities in terms of canonical
structural components of idioms, there exist several differences. For symmetrical

idioms, in English, the structural components of these idioms conform to two
symmetrical component parts (A, B) combined by a connector; A (as well as B) can
be an adjective, an adverb, an adverbial phrase, a prepositional phrase, a pronoun,
or a subordinator. However, in Vietnamese, the structural components of these
idioms conform to the two symmetrical component parts without any connectors
(AB); A (as well as B) can be a clause. For similized idioms, English idioms are
constructed in (as) A as B/A like B; A can be an adverb, or a verb phrase, and B can
be an adverb, or a prepositional phrase. Vietnamese similized idioms are
constructed in A như B (A can be a noun or a noun phrase for B being a verb
phrase); in như B (B can be a verb phrase); in AB (A can be an adjective, and B can
be a noun or a verb), which are not found in English.
In terms of non-canonical structural components, the criteria for the
distinction between idiom variants and synonymous idioms are established. We
focus on two criteria: contents and grammatical structures. Contents are based on
the same or different mental images; grammatical structures are based on the same
or different structural patterns. Although the possible variabilities of idiom variants
in both English and Vietnamese involve substitution, modification, partial deletion,
and component reversal, there exist several internal differences between the two
languages in terms of each type. For example, the substitution happening to
adverbs, conjunctions or articles is only distinctive in English (see Section 2.3.2).
In terms of the possible variabilities of synonymous idioms, the substitution
23
(alternatives belonging to different semantic fields) and pattern transformation are
shared by both languages. Passivization is admissible in English while literalized
transformation and language transformation are distinctive in Vietnamese. In
addition, the idiom variants in Vietnamese (52%) are a little more common than
those in English (46%). It shows the opposite in terms of synonymous idioms (54%
in English and 48% in Vietnamese). Thus, the idioms expressing similar contents in
English tend to have different structural patterns and different component parts
belonging to different semantic fields rather than different component parts

belonging to the same semantic field. It shows the opposite in Vietnamese.
2.2. In the present study, the canonical semantic components of idioms in
English and Vietnamese are investigated under their motivation degree and
composition. The motivation degree of semantic components is divided into
transparent (all the components are explicit), semi-transparent (some components
are explicit, and others are implicit), semi-opaque (all the components are implicit
but possibly interpretable), and opaque (all the components are implicit) (Fernando
& Flavell 1981). These motivation degrees are applied to three types of idioms
existing in our data: symmetrical, similized, and non-symmetrical (Đức 1995; Hành
2008). Our investigation reveals a quite different rate of semi-transparent similized
idioms (77.25% in English and 82.69% in Vietnamese) and semi-opaque similized
idioms (22.48% in English and 17.31% in Vietnamese). Transparent symmetrical
idioms are more prevalent in English than those in Vietnamese (11.68% in English
and 5.34% in Vietnamese). Both languages share a quite similar rate of semi-
opaque symmetrical idioms (88.31% in English and 89.46% in Vietnamese).
Opaque symmetrical idioms (5.20%) are only found in our Vietnamese data.
English shows a bit higher rate of opaque non-symmetrical idioms (5.49%) while
Vietnamese displays a lower rate (4.75%). On the contrary, semi-opaque non-
symmetrical idioms (95.25%) in Vietnamese are more common than those
(91.14%) in Vietnamese. Transparent non-symmetrical idioms in English are
3.37% while there are no transparent non-symmetrical idioms in Vietnamese. The
findings reveal that most of the idioms in English and Vietnamese are possibly
interpretable (Gibbs 1990, 1995; Nunberg et al. 1994; Kövecses & Szabo 1996;
Fernando 1996; Langlotz 2006). However, these idioms are more common in
English than those in Vietnamese.
Both English and Vietnamese share several similar properties in terms of the
composition of semantic components of idioms. This semantic composition is
24