Phương pháp nghiên cứu tâm lý học Research In Psychology: Methods and Design 6E

Research in Psychology
Methods and Design
Sixth Edition
C. James Goodwin
Western Carolina University


To Susan

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Goodwin, C. James.
Research in psychology methods and design / C. James Goodwin.—6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-52278-3 (cloth)
1. Psychology—Research—Textbooks. 2. Psychology—Research—Methodology—Textbooks.
3. Psychology, Experimental—Textbooks. I. Title.
BF76.5.G64 2010
150.72—dc22
2009014320
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1


Preface

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The Philosophy of the Text
In the process of preparing six editions of this text, I have been guided by
several strong beliefs. First, I would like students to develop a clear sense of how
experimental psychologists think and how they do their work. Thus, the student
using this book will encounter thorough discussions of the nature of psychological
science and how it differs from pseudoscience, the logic of scientific thinking, and
the manner in which experimental psychologists (a) develop ideas and hypotheses
for research, (b) design their studies, (c) carry them out, (d) analyze them, and (e)
draw reasoned conclusions from them. Second, I want students to understand that
psychologists use a variety of methods in their attempts to understand psychological

phenomena. Although the book’s main focus is on the experimental method, there
is thorough treatment of numerous other research strategies. Third, because I believe
that researchers must always be aware of the ethical dimensions of their research,
I have placed the ethics chapter early in the book (Chapter 2) and have included
some additional discussion of ethics (Ethics Boxes) in every chapter in the book after
Chapter 2. Fourth, because I have a love for psychology’s history and believe that
nobody can understand psychology’s present without knowing something of its
past, I have incorporated some of the history of experimental psychology into the
text. Recognizing that my text is for a methods course and not for a history course,
however, I have only included historical information that illuminates important
methodological concepts. Fifth, and perhaps most important, although I believe
that doing psychological science is a joyful activity, it has been my experience that
some students enter the course with a sense of dread. They believe it will be boring,
difficult, and not especially relevant for them. To counter this, I have taken pains
to write a student-friendly book that is appealing (lots of interesting descriptions of
real research), understandable (clear writing in an interactive, conversational style),
and valuable (sharpening important critical thinking skills).

iii


Preface

iv
The Organization of the Text

The book includes twelve chapters, an epilogue, and several useful appendices.
By thoroughly explaining the scientific way of thinking and contrasting it with
nonscientific and pseudoscientific thinking, the opening chapter lays the groundwork for all that follows. Chapter 2 is devoted to research ethics and concerns
how the American Psychological Association’s most recent code of ethics is applied

to research with both human participants and animal subjects. The problem of
scientific fraud is also discussed. Chapter 3 examines the question of how ideas
for research originate and explains the continually evolving relationship between
theory and research. It also helps students learn to use psychology’s most important
electronic database (PsycINFO) and provides some tips about how to do a literature
review. Issues related to measurement and data analysis are the focus of Chapter 4,
which leads up to four consecutive chapters on the experimental method, psychology’s most important method because of the kind of conclusion (causal) that
can be drawn from it. There is a basic introduction to the experimental method
(Chapter 5), a discussion of control problems in experimental research (Chapter 6),
and two chapters devoted to experimental design (Chapter 7 on single-factor
designs and Chapter 8 on factorial designs). Descriptions of other methodological strategies follow in subsequent chapters. These include correlational research
(Chapter 9); quasi-experimental designs, applied research, and program evaluation
(Chapter 10); research using ‘‘small N’’ designs (Chapter 11); and two varieties of
descriptive research, observational research and surveys (Chapter 12). The appendices describe how to prepare the (in)famous APA-style research report, reprint
the APA ethics codes for human research, and provide feedback for the some of
the end-of-chapter applications exercises. Note the word ‘‘some.’’ So that you as
instructors can use some of these materials for homework assignments, I have given
students feedback on approximately half of the exercises, in Appendix C. Answers
to the remaining exercises can be found in the electronic Instructor’s Resources
(www.wiley.com/college/goodwin).
At various points in the text, there are boxed sections of three general types.
Origins boxes supply interesting information about the historical roots of experimental psychology and show how various research concepts and methods (e.g.,
the questionnaire) were created and have evolved over the years. Classic Studies
boxes describe well-known experiments (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo studies) that illustrate particular research designs and/or methodological issues. Finally, the previously
mentioned Ethics boxes reflect my belief that a consideration of research ethics should
occur in more than just a single chapter. The ethics boxes consider such topics as
informed consent, the operation of subject pools, and the proper use of surveys.
It is not uncommon for methods texts to begin with simple descriptive methods
(observation, survey, etc.), move through correlational and quasi-experimental
methods, and eventually reach the experimental method. There is certainly some

logic to this organizational scheme, but it is not the scheme I have chosen to use.
Rather, when teaching the course some years ago, I was always disturbed by how late
in the semester students were encountering such things as factorial designs—who
wants to be figuring out interactions while they are still digesting the Thanksgiving
turkey? I wanted to get to experiments sooner in the semester because I wanted to
be able to spend time on them if students ran into trouble. Also, because most of


Preface

v
my labs used experimental designs, I wanted students to have some understanding
of the studies they were running during the semester. So my chapter organization
reflects the way I teach the course—I like to get to experiments as soon as possible.
Reviewers of the text have been divided on the issue, with most liking the current
organization, but some preferring to start with descriptive methods. I have been
pleased to learn, however, that a number of reviewer/colleagues who like to begin
the course with descriptive methods have been using my text anyway, and simply
changing the chapter sequence to suit themselves. Thus, it is worth noting that the
text is to some degree modular and can be taught using several different arrangements
of chapters.

If Your Course Combines Research Methods and Statistics
In recent years, a number of psychology departments have taken their stand-alone
statistics and methodology courses and combined them into two sequential courses
that fully integrate statistics and methodology. The rationale for this is the unquestioned interdependence of the two. For instructors teaching in this way, the issue
then becomes what to do for a text—statistics texts don’t have enough methodology
and methodology texts don’t have enough statistics. One solution is to use a text
specifically written for the integrated course. A few are beginning to appear on the
market, but the choices are limited at this point. Another strategy is to adopt both

a stat text and a methods text, telling students that they will be using both books
both semesters, so the cost won’t be any greater than taking a traditional statistics
course followed by a methods course. The problem with this second strategy is that
statistics texts and methodology texts often use inconsistent language and slightly
different statistical symbol systems. Students can easily be confused about the t
test for dependent groups in their methodology text and the t test for correlated
samples in their statistics text, failing to realize that the two are identical. To solve
this problem, I have coordinated the rewriting of this book with Robert and John
Witte, who write a successful statistics text for Wiley (Statistics), now in its ninth
edition. That is, I have changed some of my statistical language and symbols so that
they match theirs exactly, and I have included occasional references to their fine
book. Thus, if you are teaching a combined course and wish to use separate statistics
and methods texts, adopting my book along with the Witte text will guarantee you
consistency both in the language and the statistical symbols.

Pedagogical Features of the Text
For the student, this text has several features designed to facilitate learning. These
include:

• At the start of each chapter, a brief preview of what is to be found in the chapter
and a set of specific learning objectives for the chapter.
• Throughout each chapter, periodic Self Tests, set off in small boxes, enabling
the student to test comprehension for a portion of a chapter just completed.
• At the end of each chapter, a comprehensive summary of important points, a
set of Review Questions, a set of Applications Exercises, and answers to the


Preface

vi

Self Tests. The review questions are short essay questions for discussion and
reflection. These review questions are not just definitional; they ask students to
apply some of the concepts learned in the chapter and to think critically about
them. The applications exercises include thought questions and problems to
solve that require using the concepts learned in the chapter. There is feedback
to about half of these exercises in Appendix C. The online Instructor’s Manual
includes feedback for the remaining exercises, which enables instructors to assign
some of the end-of-chapter exercise as graded homework.
• Key terms and concepts appear in boldface print throughout the book and
they are collected in a Glossary at the end of the book. To make it easier to find
where the descriptions of the Glossary terms are in the text, I have structured
the Subject Index so that the text page where a glossary term is first defined is
boldfaced.
• Throughout the text, there are numerous concrete examples of real research,
used to illustrate various methodological points and to enhance critical thinking.
These include forty detailed descriptions (called ‘‘Research Examples’’) and
dozens of other, briefer descriptions.

Electronic Resources
There are several electronic resources available for students and instructors. They
can be found here:
www.wiley.com/college/goodwin
Simply go to the site, find my textbook and click on Student or Instructor
Resources. Students can get to the materials directly; instructors must register with
Wiley because some of the materials (e.g., test bank) are password-protected. Here’s
what can be found.
For the Instructor:

• An Instructor’s Manual, organized by chapter, which provides numerous ideas

•
•
•
•

for in-class exercises, lecture elaborations, homework, and so on (many taken
from psychology’s best journal for teachers, Teaching of Psychology). It also includes
the answers for those end-of-chapter Applications Exercises that students won’t
find in Appendix C.
A Test Bank for each chapter that includes both objective (multiple choice and
fill-in-the-blank) items and written questions (short essays and comprehensive,
integrative essays).
A set of PowerPoint slides to accompany the chapters.
A Laboratory Manual— a set of materials and instructions that will enable you
to collect data in 20 different experiments.
Everything that is to be found in the Student materials.


Preface

vii
For the Student:

• Accompanying this text and available from the Wiley website is an electronic
Study Guide. The Study Guide includes concept questions for students to
answer as they work their way through chapters, sample objective test items
(fill-ins, matching, and multiple choice) with detailed feedback, and applications
exercises similar to the ones found at the ends of chapters in the main text.
• The Study Guide also includes two important aids for statistical analysis:

■
Detailed descriptions about how to calculate various statistical analyses by
hand (e.g., t tests, ANOVA); this has been coordinated carefully with the
Witte’s statistics text and replaces the Appendix C that appeared in earlier
editions of this text.
■
Because many departments rely on SPSS for statistical analysis, I have
included a detailed step-by-step SPSS Guide that my students have found
useful over the years.

Acknowledgments
This project would not have been started, much less completed and evolved
into a sixth edition, without the encouragement and support of many people,
most notably my dear wife of forty-plus years (Susan, retired now, but a former
corporate auditor good at keeping me on task, yet willing to let me sneak out for
an occasional semi-guilt-free 18 holes of mountain golf) and my children (Kerri,
a university professor and cognitive psychologist, and Charles, a full-time project
geologist for an environmental consulting firm and part-time graduate student).
The hundreds of students who have passed through my research methods course
have been my principal source of inspiration in writing the book—during the
years before I started writing the first edition, many of them told me to stop
complaining about the textbook being used at the time and write my own. I would
especially like to acknowledge Aimee Faso Wright, who was the leader of a group
of students interested in cognitive mapping and was the senior author of the sample
study on that topic in Appendix A. I’m delighted that she has earned a Ph.D. in
pharmacology, and only mildly disappointed that experimental psychology lost her.
To Darryl Bruce, my dissertation director, I owe a great debt. He first showed
me just how exciting research in psychology could be during my grad school days
in Tallahassee. Today, he is happily retired in beautiful Nova Scotia, which gives
Susan and me an excuse to visit a place with (relatively) cheap lobster. I would also

like to thank two of my colleagues in the Society for the Teaching of Psychology
(APA’s Division 2), Wayne Weiten and Steve Davis. At the very beginning of
the project, both were instrumental in convincing me that I actually could write a
book, and both continue to provide support, encouragement, and friendship.


Preface

viii

Thanks also go to the stalwart and thoughtful reviewers for the text. Sixth edition
reviewers included:
Chad Galuska, College of Charleston
Michael Marcell, College of Charleston
Christine Selby, Husson College
Stephen D. O’Rourke, The College of New Rochelle
Finally, the editors, production team, and marketing staff at Wiley have continued
to be first rate, making the entire process a breeze (or at least much less onerous
than I had any reason to expect). I am especially grateful for the editorial support of
Chris Johnson and Eileen McKeever, and for the skillful production work of Mark
Sehestedt and his team at Laserwords Maine.


CONTENTS

..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

CHAPTER

1

Scientific Thinking in Psychology
Why Take This Course?
Ways of Knowing
6
Authority
Use of Reason
Experience

1

3

6
6
7

The Ways of Knowing and Science

Science as a Way of Knowing

9

10

Science Assumes Determinism
10
Science Makes Systematic Observations
Science Produces Public Knowledge

11
12

Box 1.1 ORIGINS—A Taste of Introspection

13

Science Produces Data-Based Conclusions
14
Science Produces Tentative Conclusions
16
Science Asks Answerable Questions
17
Science Develops Theories That Can Be Disproven

Psychological Science and Pseudoscience
Recognizing Pseudoscience
Associates with True Science

18

20

21
21

ix


Contents

x
Box 1.2 CLASSIC STUDIES—Disproving Phrenology

23

Relies on Anecdotal Evidence
25
Sidesteps Disproof
26
Reduces Complex Phenomena to Overly Simplistic
Concepts
27

The Goals of Research in Psychology
Description
Prediction
Explanation
Application

27

27
28
28
29

A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part I)
Eleanor Gibson (1910–2002)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

CHAPTER

29

30
32

2

Ethics in Psychological Research 39
Developing the APA Code of Ethics
40
Box 2.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—Infants at Risk
Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans
Judging Benefits and Costs: The IRB
46
Informed Consent and Deception in Research

41
46
50

Box 2.2 ETHICS—Historical Problems with Informed
Consent
56
Informed Consent and Special Populations
Treating Participants Well
60
Research Ethics and the Internet

63

Ethical Guidelines for Research with Animals
The Issue of Animal Rights

Using Animals in Psychological Research
67
The APA Code for Animal Research
69
Justifying the Study
70
Caring for the Animals
70
Using Animals for Educational Purposes
71
Data Falsification

71
72

64

65

Box 2.3 ORIGINS—Antivivisection and the APA

Scientific Fraud

58

66


Contents

xi
CHAPTER

3

Developing Ideas for Research in Psychology 81
Varieties of Psychological Research

82

Basic versus Applied Research
82
The Setting: Laboratory versus Field Research

85

Box 3.1 ETHICS—A Matter of Privacy

88

Quantitative versus Qualitative Research

Asking Empirical Questions
Operational Definitions

89

90
90

Developing Research from Observations of Behavior and
Serendipity
92
Box 3.2 ORIGINS—Serendipity and Edge Detectors
94
Developing Research from Theory
95
The Nature of Theory
95
The Relationship Between Theory and Data
Attributes of Good Theories
Falsification
100

97

100

Box 3.3 CLASSIC STUDIES—Falsification
and Der Kluge Hans
101
Parsimony
103
Misunderstandings about Theories

104

Developing Research from Other Research

105

Research Teams and the ‘‘What’s Next?’’ Question
Replication and Extension
108

106

Creative Thinking in Science
109
Reviewing the Literature
112
Computerized Database Searches
Search Tips
114

CHAPTER

112

4

Measurement and Data Analysis

123

What to Measure—Varieties of Behavior
Developing Measures from Constructs

124

125

Box 4.1 ORIGINS—Reaction Time: From Mental Chronometry
to Mental Rotation
128


Contents

xii
Evaluating Measures

130

Reliability
130
Validity
131
Reliability and Validity

134

Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales

Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales

135

135
137
137

Box 4.2 CLASSIC STUDIES—Measuring Somatotypes on an
Interval Scale: Hoping for 4–4–4
138
Ratio Scales

Statistical Analysis

139

140

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
141

141

Box 4.3 ETHICS—Lying with Statistics

149

Inferential Statistics
151
Hypothesis Testing
153
Type I and Type II Errors
154
Inferential Analysis
156
156
Interpreting Failures to Reject H0
Going Beyond Hypothesis Testing
157
Effect Size
158
Confidence Intervals
Power
160

CHAPTER

159

5

Introduction to Experimental Research

167

Essential Features of Experimental Research
169

Box 5.1 ORIGINS—John Stuart Mill and the Rules
of Inductive Logic
169
Establishing Independent Variables

171

Varieties of Independent Variables
Control Groups
172
Controlling Extraneous Variables
174
Measuring Dependent Variables
176

Manipulated versus Subject Variables

171

177

Drawing Conclusions When Using Subject Variables

180


Contents

xiii
Box 5.2 CLASSIC STUDIES—Bobo Dolls and

Aggression
182
The Validity of Experimental Research
184
Statistical Conclusion Validity
184
Construct Validity
185
External Validity
186
Other Populations
186

Box 5.3 ETHICS—Recruiting Participants: Everyone’s
in the Pool
187
Other Environments
Other Times
190
A Note of Caution
Internal Validity
191

189
190

Threats to Internal Validity

192

Studies Extending over a Period of Time
History and Maturation
Regression
194
Testing and Instrumentation
Participant Problems
196
Subject Selection Effects
Attrition
197

CHAPTER

192

193
195
196

6

Control Problems in Experimental Research 205
Between-Subjects Designs
207
The Problem of Creating Equivalent Groups
Random Assignment
Matching
210

208

208

Within-Subjects Designs
213
The Problem of Controlling Sequence Effects

217

Testing Once Per Condition
217
Complete Counterbalancing
218
Partial Counterbalancing
218
Testing More Than Once per Condition
Reverse Counterbalancing
221
Block Randomization
221

219

Control Problems in Developmental Research

224


Contents

xiv

Box 6.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—The Record for Repeated
Measures
226
Problems with Biasing
227
Experimenter Bias
228
Controlling for Experimenter Bias
Participant Bias
231

229

Box 6.2 ORIGINS—Productivity at Western Electric
Controlling for Participant Bias

232

234

Box 6.3 ETHICS—Research Participants Have Responsibilities
Too
236
CHAPTER

7

Experimental Design I: Single-Factor Designs 241

Single Factor—Two Levels

243

Between-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs
Within-Subjects, Single-Factor Designs

244
247

Box 7.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—Psychology’s Most Widely
Replicated Finding?
248
Analyzing Single-Factor, Two-Level Designs

252

Single Factor—More Than Two Levels

253

Between-Subjects, Multilevel Designs

254

Box 7.2 ORIGINS—Nonlinear Results: The Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve
255
Within-Subjects, Multilevel Designs
Presenting the Data

260

259

Types of Graphs
261
Analyzing Single-Factor, Multilevel Designs

Control Group Designs

263

267

Placebo Control Groups
Waiting List Control Groups

267
268

Box 7.3 ETHICS—Who’s in the Control Group?
Yoked Control Groups

CHAPTER

272

8

Experimental Design II: Factorial Designs 281

Factorial Essentials

282

Identifying Factorial Designs

283

269


Contents

xv
Outcomes—Main Effects and Interactions
Main Effects
284
Interactions
288
Interactions Sometimes Trump Main Effects

284

292

Combinations of Main Effects and Interactions

293

Box 8.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—To Sleep, Perchance

to Recall
297
Varieties of Factorial Designs
300
Mixed Factorial Designs
301
Factorials with Subject and Manipulated Variables: P × E
Designs
304
Recruiting Participants for Factorial Designs
311
Analyzing Factorial Designs
311

Box 8.2 ETHICS—On Being a Competent and Ethical
Researcher
313
Box 8.3 ORIGINS—Factorials Down on the Farm
CHAPTER

317

9

Correlational Research 325
Psychology’s Two Disciplines
326
Box 9.1 ORIGINS—Galton’s Studies of Genius
327
Correlation and Regression—The Basics

329
Positive and Negative Correlations
Scatterplots
331
Assuming Linearity

329

332

Restricting the Range
334
2
335
Coefficient of Determination—r
Regression Analysis—Making Predictions

Interpreting Correlations

336

339

Correlations and Causality
339
Directionality
339
Third Variables
342
Caution: Correlational Statistics versus Correlational

Research
344

Using Correlations

346

The Need for Correlational Research
Varieties of Correlational Research

346
347


Contents

xvi
Box 9.2 ETHICS—APA Guidelines for Psychological
Testing
348
Box 9.3 CLASSIC STUDIES—The Achieving Society
Multivariate Analysis
353

351

Multiple Regression
354
Factor Analysis
355

CHAPTER

10

Quasi-Experimental Designs and Applied
Research 363
Beyond the Laboratory

365

Applied Psychology in Historical Context

367

Box 10.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—The Hollingworths, Applied
Psychology, and Coca-Cola
369
Design Problems in Applied Research

Quasi-Experimental Designs

370

371

Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
Outcomes
373

372

Regression and Matching
375
Interrupted Time Series Designs
381
Outcomes
381
Variations on the Basic Time Series Design
Research Using Archival Data

384

386

Program Evaluation
390
Box 10.2 ORIGINS—Reforms as Experiments

390

Planning for Programs—Needs Analysis
392
Monitoring Programs—Formative Evaluation
395
Evaluating Outcomes—Summative Evaluation
395
Weighing Costs—Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
397
A Note on Qualitative Analysis

399

Box 10.3 ETHICS—Evaluation Research and Ethics
CHAPTER

400

11

Small N Designs 407
Research in Psychology Began with Small N
Box 11.1 ORIGINS—Cats in Puzzle Boxes
Reasons for Small N Designs
413

408
411


Contents

xvii
Misleading Results from Statistical Summaries
of Grouped Data
413
Practical Problems with Large N Designs

The Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Operant Conditioning
Applied Behavior Analysis

416

416

417
421

Box 11.2 ETHICS—Controlling Human Behavior
Small N Designs in Applied Behavior Analysis
Elements of Single-Subject Designs
Withdrawal Designs
426
Multiple Baseline Designs
428
Changing Criterion Designs
Other Designs
436

422
425

425

435

Evaluating Single-Subject Designs

438

Case Study Designs
440
Box 11.3 CLASSIC STUDIES—The Mind
of a Mnemonist
442
Evaluating Case Studies

CHAPTER

443

12

Observational and Survey Research Methods 451
Observational Research

452

Varieties of Observational Research
452
Naturalistic Observation
453
Participant Observation

454

Box 12.1 CLASSIC STUDIES—When Prophecy Fails
Challenges Facing Observational Methods
Absence of Control
457

Observer Bias
458
Participant Reactivity
Ethics
459

457

459

Survey Research
463
Box 12.2 ORIGINS—Creating the ‘‘Questionary’’
Probability Sampling
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling

455

466
468
470
470

464


Contents

xviii
Varieties of Survey Methods
471
Interviews
471
Phone Surveys
472
Electronic Surveys
473
Written Surveys
474
Creating an Effective Survey
475
Types of Survey Questions or Statements
Assessing Memory and Knowledge
478
Adding Demographic Information
478
A Key Problem: Survey Wording
Surveys and Ethics

475

479

481

Box 12.3 ETHICS—Using and Abusing Surveys

EPILOGUE

What I Learned in My Research Methods Course
A Passion for Research in Psychology (Part II)
Elliot Aronson
Elizabeth Loftus

APPENDIX

482

491
494

494
496

A

Communicating the Results of Research
in Psychology 499
Research Reports, APA Style
General Guidelines
500
Writing Style
500
Reducing Bias in Language
Avoiding Plagiarism
504
Miscellaneous
505

499

501

Main Selections of the Lab Report

506

Title Page
506
The Manuscript Page Header/Page Number
Running Head
506
Title/Author/Affiliation
507
Abstract
508
Introduction
509
APA Citation Format
Method
510

509

506


Contents

xix
Results
510
Reporting the Data: Statistics
511
Portraying the Data: Tables and Figures
Discussion
512
References

513

Presentations and Posters

514

Tips for Presenting a Paper
Tips for Presenting a Poster

514
515

APPENDIX

511

B

The Ethics Code of the American Psychological
Association 533

The APA Ethics Code for Research with Human
Participants
533
APPENDIX

C

Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Applications
Exercises 539
GLOSSARY

561

REFERENCES

573

NAME INDEX

589

SUBJECT INDEX

595



Summary of
Research Examples
CHAPTER

PAGE

RESEARCH
EXAMPLE #

4

126

1

4

127

2

4

133

3

5

173

4

5

178

5

6

222

6

6

230

7

7

245

8

7

246

9

7

247

10

7

250

11

7

256

12

7

259

13

7

271

14

7

272

15

8

286

16

8

290

17

8

301

18

TOPIC

Habituation
Infants’ understanding of gravity
Reaction Time
Imagery and mental rotation

Construct Validity
A connectedness to nature scale
Experimental and Control Groups
False memories for egg salad
Using Subject Variables
Culture and field dependence/independence
Counterbalancing with Block Randomization
Judging size through auditory perception
Using a Double Blind
Caffeine, aging, and memory
Independent Groups
Insecurity and materialistic values
Matched Groups
Sleep deprivation and leading questions
Nonequivalent groups
Traumatic brain injury and sarcasm detection
Repeated Measures
Moving rooms and balance
Multilevel Independent Groups
Cartoons, context, and memory
Multilevel Repeated Measures
The alleged Mozart effect
Using Both Placebo and Waiting List Control
Groups
Subliminal self-help and weight loss
A Yoked Control Group
EMDR and anxiety
Main Effects
Closing time and attractiveness
An Interaction with No Main Effects

Context-dependent memory and studying
A Mixed Factorial with Counterbalancing
Looming spiders, self-efficacy, and fear

xxi


Summary of Research Examples

xxii

CHAPTER

PAGE

RESEARCH
EXAMPLE #

8

303

19

8

307

20

8

309

21

9

341

22

9

347

23

9

349

24

9

352

25

10

366

26

10

378

27

10

380

28

10

383

29

10

388

30

10

394

31

10

398

32

11

427

33

11

429

34

11

431

35

11

433

36

11

435

37

TOPIC

A Mixed Factorial without Counterbalancing
Release from PI in TV news
A Factorial Design with a P × E Interaction
Stereotype threat in math
A Mixed P × E Factorial with Two Main
Effects
Cell phones and driving
Correlations and Directionality
TV and aggression
Correlations and Psychological Testing
Reliability and validity of the K · ABC
Correlations in Personality and Abnormal
Psychology
Physical attractiveness and happiness
Correlations and Nature-Nurture
Genetics and personality

Applied Research
The cognitive interview and witness memory
A Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Coaching and self-esteem
A Nonequivalent Control Group Design
without Pretests
Earthquakes and nightmares
An Interrupted Time Series Design
Incentives and worker productivity
A Quasi-Experimental Design Using Archival
Data
A room with a view
Assessing Need
Planning for employee wellness
Assessing Costs and Benefits
Cardiac wellness in the workplace
An A-B-A-B Design
On-task performance and ADHD
Multiple Baselines Across Subjects
Help for stuttering
A Multiple Baseline Design Across Behaviors
Improving linebacker play
Multiple Baselines Across Settings
Help for uncontrolled drooling
A Changing Criterion Design
Exercise and weight


Summary of Research Examples

xxiii

CHAPTER

PAGE

RESEARCH
EXAMPLE #

12

460

38

12

462

39

12

483

40

TOPIC

A Naturalistic Observation

Parents and children in a science museum
A Structured Observational Study
Helping behavior among children
An Attitude Survey with Cluster Sampling
Attitudes toward animal research