Đối chiếu đặc điểm ngữ pháp và ngữ nghĩa của hiện tượng phóng chiếu trong tiếng anh và tiếng việt tt tiếng anh

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

VU HOAI THU

A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE
ANALYSIS OF PROJECTION IN ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE

Major: Contrastive linguistics
Code: 9222024

SUMMARY OF Ph.D. THESIS IN LINGUISTICS

Hà Nội - 2019


The research is done at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences

VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Hoang Van Van

Reviewer 1: Prof. Dr. Do Viet Hung
Reviewer 2: Prof. Dr. Hoang Trong Phien
Reviewer 3: Vice Prof. Dr. Pham Hung Viet

The dissertation will be defended at the Dissertation Assessment
Board of the Academy at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences
- Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences at 477 Nguyen Trai

Street, Thanh Xuan District, Hanoi.
At ……..on ...........

The dissertation can be found at:
National Library of Vietnam
Library of Graduate Academy of Social Science


LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE AUTHOR

1. Vũ Hoài Thu (2017). Projection and its levels in term of Systemic Functional
Grammar. Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal, issue 4 (7/2017), p.91-98.

2. Vũ Hoài Thu (2018), A comparison of norminal projection in Vietnamese and
English. Journal of Social Science Manpower, issue 10 (10/2018), p. 84-89.

3. Vũ Hoài Thu (2018), Investigating projection phenomena in clause complexes
in the novel Thorn bird. Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal, issue 6 (11/2018),
p. 122- 126


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PREAMBLE
1. Reason for selecting the topic
During the communication to exchange information, projection is one of
interesting issues of languages. It often occurs in articles and narratives.
How to tranfer projection effectively in translation between two languages and
how teach projection well still seems to be a problem for both teachers and
learners as well as translators or interpreters.

There have been some studies related to this issue, but to some extent of our
knowledge, no studies have not specialized in contrastive analysis of projection in
English and Vietnamese. Especially in Vietnamese, Systemic Functional Grammar
(including projection) is not popular, so it causes gaps for researchers to carry out
father studies.
With all the reasons mentioned above, we decided to conduct the study with
the title: "A grammatical and semantic constrastive analysis of projection in
English and Vietnamese" and hope it will complete these “gaps”.
2. Purposes, research tasks and materials
2.1. Research purposes of the dissertation
The purposes of the dissertation is to investigate the the grammatical and
semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese in the light of
Systemic Functional Linguistics in order to find out the similarities and differences
of projection between the two languages.
2.2. Research missions
- To clarify theoretical issues of projection in Systemic Functional Grammar
and related issues in traditional grammar.
- To find out the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in
different levels: phrases, simple clauses and clause complexes in English and
Vietnamese.
- To find out the similarities and differences in the grammatical and semantic
characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese.
2.3. Research materials
In English, projection is investigated in the data resouces: 15 articles of New
York Times, 15 articles of USA Today and Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone
by J.K. Rowling. In Vietnamese, the data resouces include 15 articles of Nhân Dân,
15 articles of Vietnamnet; Tôi thấy hoa vàng trên cỏ xanh and Cô gái đến từ hôm
qua by Nguyễn Nhật Ánh.
3. Research on subjects and scope
3.1. Research subjects

Projection above the clause and under the clause in English with reference to
Vietnamese is objects of the study.
3.2. Research scope
Investigating grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in English
and Vietnamese is limited in the following aspects:


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

Analysing the data for the quantity, rate and grammarical and semantic
characteristics of projection above the clause: projection processes, potential
projection processes, modes of quoting and reporting.
 Analysing the data for the quantity, rate and grammatical and semantic
characteristics of projection under the clause: verbal groups of projection,
circumstances and nominal groups of projection.
4. Research methodology
The dissertation uses two basic methods: description-analysis synthesis
method and compare and contrast method. Beside that, some other submethods
are also used such as statistics, classification, model…
5. Contribution of the dissertation
5.1. Theoretical meanings of the dissertation
The results of the study clarifies the theories related to projection in Systemic
Functional Grammar in English and Vietnamese as well as helps other researchers
conduct further studies related to this issue.
5.2. Practical meanings of the dissertation
The results of the dissertation will help teachers of English and Vietnamese as
well as translators or interpreters to know thoroughly about the grammatical and
semantic characteristics of projection above the clause and under the clause. It also

helps learners know how to transfer effectively projection in English into
Vietnamese and vice versa as well as improve the effect of their communication in
both of the languages. Moreover, teachers who know projection well will have
effective strategies for teaching this issue in each language. Especially, it is very
useful for reporters or journalists training courses at education services.
6. The structure of the dissertation
The dissertation consists of three main chapters apart from introduction,
conclusion, author’s publications, references and a table of contents: Chapter
1: Overview of research situations and theoretical basic of the topic; Chapter 2: A
grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection above the clause in
English and Vietnamese; Chapter 3: A grammatical and semantic analysis of
projection in the clause in English and in Vietnamese.
CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH SITUATIONS AND THEORETICAL
BASIS OF THE TOPIC
1.1. Overview of research situations
1.1.1. Research situations of equivalent notions of projection before Systemic
Functional Grammar
In Vietnamese Grammar, Diệp Quang Ban (2008) discusses on compound
sentences and mentioned the notion of projection called “xạ ảnh”. According to the
author, “xạ ảnh” (projection) is to tranfer an event into a locution or an idea like
the way to shoot or project an image or an event into a locution or an idea. In
traditional grammar, this issue is called reported speech, later also including
reported thought.


3

Florian Coulmas (1986) carries out a study about general issues of languages.
The author discussed on similarities and differences of directed speech and

indirected speech basing on the system of vocabulary and grammar. He also
discusses chronologically on the third kind – a combination of both directed
speech and indirected speech; and listed different notions of the third kind.
Fillmore (1971, 2001) says that both directed speech and indirected speech are
complements of saying verbs. He regards all the elements just after saying verbs as
a message which is divided into 4 types: message-content, message-form,
category-message and message-type.
Quirk et al. (1985) discuss on equivalent notions of projection called direct
speech and indirect speech. Moreover, an intermediary of directed speech and
indirected speech in traditional grammar, called free directed speech and free
indirected speech, is also mentioned. The authors make great contribution to
extend the notion of directed speech and indirected speech. They affirm that
speech must be allowed to include unspoken mental activities.
In the research work of grammar and semantics of Vietnamese saying verbs,
Nguyễn Vân Phổ (2011) discuss on directed speech and indirected speech,
applying both case grammar of Fillmore and SFG of Halliday.
Diệp Quang Ban (2001) and Nguyễn Văn Hiệp (2009) regard complex
sentences with directed speech and indirected speech as simple sentences that
include two equal parts in Vietnamese.
1.1.2. Research situations of projection under the light of the FSL theory
1.1.2.1. Research situations of projection in the world
Since the 1980s, the theory of SFL in general and projection in specific has been
carried out in many applied researches in different languages such as in English,
French, Japanese, Chinese, Greek, Spanish, Germany,... (cf. Anna-Maria & Marina,
2009; Shu-Kun Chen, 2016; Qingshun He & Junhui Wu, 2015; Esther Olayinka
Bamigbola, 2015; Jing Fang, 2012; Wang Pin, 2012; Farahman, 2014; Xinxin
Zhang & Xueai Zhao, 2016; Malte Rosemeyer, 2012; Vicente López Folgado,
2000; Alexandra Holsting, 2008).
The dissertation of Forey (2002), chapter 6, studied the relation between
interpersonal metafunction and extended theme in projected clauses. Sanggam

Siahaan & Tengkun Silvana Sinar (2013) studied how to translate projection
processes in Batak Toba (Indonesia) into English. Ayako Ochi (2008) researched
on ideational projection in Japanese news reporting. José Manuel Durán (2008)
carried out a research on a correlation between the systems of taxis (paratactic and
hypotactic) and projection (locution and idea) in newspaper articles in English and
Spanish.
1.1.2.2. Research situations of projection in Vietnam
Althought SFG has been discussed in a number of studies widely in other
languages over the world since 1960, it has just been applied to conduct some
studies in Vietnamese such as Cao Xuân Hạo (1991/2004), Phan Thiều (1993), Hồ
Lê (1993), Hoàng Văn Vân (1997), Thái Minh Đức (1998), Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2007),
Võ Việt Cường (2013), Nguyễn Thị Lan Anh (2014) và Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm
(2013). Much less studies on project are carried out.


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The research work of Hoàng Văn Vân An Experiential Grammar of the
Vietnamese Clause (2002/2005/2012) in both English and Vietnemese discussed
on projection processes as an important characteristic to distinguish mental
processes and verbal processes with others.
Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm (2007) compared the logico-sementic relationship in
English and Vietanamese clause complexes. She found out the differences and
similarities, mainly about its presentation. Nguyễn Thị Xuân Mỹ (2012), carried
out an investigation of projection processes in English and Vietnamese (mental
processes and verbal processes), but the findings only focused on the similarities,
not the differences of projection processes between the two languages. Trần Hồng
Vân (2013), carried out a pilot research of applying the theory of SFG to identify
projected clauses in president Barack Obama’s speeches during the electoral
campaign in Las Vegas. Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm (2013) developed and studied

more closely two kinds of clause complexes called “clause complexes of
expension” and “clause complexes of projection”. This is the first close complete
research about realization and operation of projection clause complexes under the
light of the SFG theory in Vietnam. However, the study only focused on the
relationships of clause complexes so projection elements in clauses wasn’t
mentioned sufficiently.
The researches mentioned above haven’t studied closely or completely all
kinds of projection in different levels. This is a gap for the dissertation to complete.
1.2. Theoretical basis
1.2.1. Theory of contrastive analysis
According to Lê Quang Thiêm (2008, p. 41), “Contrastive analysis helps us
determine the similarities and differences of languages in terms of their structure,
operation and development”.
According to Bùi Mạnh Hùng (2008), there are two basic approaches, which
depends on the concrete objectives and missions of the study: (i) one-way
contrastive analysis and (ii) two-way contrastive analysis.
1.2.2. Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
The primary source of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) was the work of
J.R. Firth (1890-1960), a late famous English linguist, who was greatly affected by
the linguistic theory of a well-known English anthropologist Brolislaw Malinowski
(1844-1942).
SFL is an approach to language developed mainly by Halliday. It presents
versatile relations among language elements in a system, or connections of
language elements in different levels.
1.2.3. Projection in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)
1.2.3.1. Equivalent notion of sentence (clause) in SFL
The clause is many-sided or multidimentional. It can be defined and
recognised along a number of dimensions: stratification, rank and metafunction
(Halliday, 1994, 2012; Martin, 1992; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004/2014; Hoàng
Văn Vân, 2002/2005, 2012). The clause is located at the stratum of

lexicalgrammar (system of wording) and presents three metafunctions of


5

languages: (i) Experiential metafuntion; (ii) Interpersonal metafunction; (iii)
Textual metafunction.
1.2.3.2. Projection in Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG)
According to Matthiessen et al. (2010: 165), projection is one of “two
fundamental types of logico-semantic relationships in the system of LOGICO
SEMANTIC type which may be manifested ideationally (or interpersonally in
projection) between a primary and a secondary member of element that are related
as interdependent, in group/phrase complexes, in clauses (as in the system of
transitivity and circumstance), in clause complex text of all kinds. Projection in the
environment of clause complexes sets up one clause as the representation of the
linguistic content of another either as ideas in a mental clause of sensing or
locutions in a verbal clause of saying”.
Notion of projection was suggested by Halliday. According to him,
projection isn’t not only found in a clause complex but also in a clause. The
connotation of projection in SFG is more complicated than directed and indirected
speech in traditional grammar. It doesn’t contain verbs of saying and thinking, but
also verbs of feeling and emotion.
 Projection processes
According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2002), the term “process” can be used in two
senses (narrow and wide). In its narrow sense, it covers all phenomena to which
the specification of the time may be attached; i.e., anything that can be expressed
by a verb: event, whether physical or not, state or relation. In its wider sense, it
refers to what is known as a ‘state of affairs’ or a ‘representation’ (cf. Halliday
1967, Halliday in Kress 1976, Fawcett 1987, Davidse 1992, 1996, Shore 1992,
Matthiessen 1995).

Projecting processes refer to two minor processes: verbal processes and mental
ones. Besides, behavioural processes have the potential of projecting another
clause.
 Levels of projection
Projection may involve either of the two levels of the content plane of
language: projection of meaning (ideas) or projection of wording (locutions).
 Modes of projection
In paratactic relationship, the projection is presented as a quote; in hypotactic
relationship, the projection is presented as a report. Besides, the third mode of
projection is free indirect speech. It combines features of quoting and reporting
(Halliday, 2012).
 The speech function of the projection
Major speech functions of the projection include proposals and propositions.
Minor speech function may be greetings and exclamations.
1.2.4. Types of projection
1.2.4.1. Projection in the clause
 Minor projecting clause: Circumstances of projection
Circumstances of projection consist of circumstances of angle and matter,
using prepositions.


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 Projection under the clause: Nominal groups of embedded projection
According to Halliday (1994, 2012) and Halliday & Matthiessen (2004/2014)
embedded locutions and ideas can be ‘rankshifted’ to function a qualifier within a
nominal group. Such instances are still projections, but the projecting element is
the noun that is functioning as thing and the clause that it projects serves to define
it in exactly the same way that a restrictive relative clause defines the noun that is
expended by it.

 Projection under the clause: Nominal groups of fact
There is one other type of projection, where the projected clause is not being
projected by a verb or mental process witth sayer or senser, or by a verbal or
mental process noun, but it comes, as it were, ready packaged in projected form. It
is called a fact.
 Projection under the clause: Verbal groups of projection
Verbal groups of projection are generally proposals. They are perfective in
aspect and have the same subject in both halves.
1.2.4.2. Projection above the clause
 Projecting clauses
Projecting clauses are carried out by a verbal process or a mental one. In the
verbal process, the projecting clause is verbal (saying); in the mental clause, it is
mental (perceptive, cognitive, desiderative and emotive). The position of the
projecting clause in a clause complex is initial, middle or final.
 Projected clauses
In a verbal process, the projecting clause is a verbal process clause, and the
projected clause presents that which is said (a locution). In a mental process, if the
projecting clause is a mental clause (perceptive, cognitive, desiderative and
emotive), the projected clause presents that which is thought (an idea) and it can be
any processes.
 Functions of projection above the clause
The basic function of projected clauses is to show that the other clause is
projected: someone said it or someone thought it (locutions or ideas). The function
of projected clauses is to present a locution or an idea.
 Basic modes of projection above the clause
+ Quoting
In the modes of quoting, projecting clauses are verbal process clauses and
projected clauses present that which was said or thought. In a quoting nexus the
tactic relationship, the type of dependency, is paratactic, the two parts have equal
status. The projected element is independent and in the original form of what is

projected is what is said or what is thought.
+ Reporting
It is possible to report a saying by presenting it as a meaning. The
relationship between the projecting clause and the projected clause is hypotaxis
and the idealized function is to represent the sense, or gist. This means the speaker


7

is reporting the gist of what was said, and the wording may be quite different from
the original.
Summary of Chapter 1
In this chapter, we have given an overview of typical studies in Vietnam and
in the world related to projection of SFG and its equivalent notions in traditional
grammar (directed and indirected speech). None of the studies mentioned above
goes deeply into all the levels of projection and compares the grammatical and
semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese. Therefore, this is
a gap for our dissertation to complete.
Beside clarifing notions of projection, the theoretical basis related to the
issue has also presented in detail. The connotation of projection of SFG is wider
than the notion of directed and indirected speech of traditional grammar.
Projection is not only above the clause but also in the clause as well as in the
phrase.
CHAPTER 2
A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE ANAYLIS OF
PROJECTION ABOVE CLAUSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
2.1. A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection above the clause in
English
Table 2.1. Quantity of English clause complexes of projection in mental and
verbal processes

Types
The number of English clause complexes of Total
projection
verbal process
Mental process
Novels
169
53
222
Newspapers
305
24
329
Total
474 (86%)
77 (14%)
511 (100%)
2.1.1. Projecting clause
2.1.1.1. Grammatical characteristics
Grammatical features of projecting clauses are realized through the
presentation and the functions. The presentation of projecting clauses is realized
through its positions in the complexes and punctuation. Projecting clauses can be
at the three possible positions in the clause complexes: initial, middle and final. A
projecting clause and a projected clause are seperated by a comma or a colon if the
position of the projecting clause is initial, by a comma if it is final and by two
commas if it is middle. The basic function of projecting clause is to show that the
other clause is projected.
2.1.1.2. Semantic characteristcs
Semantic charateristics (experiential meanings) of projected clauses are
reliazed with participants, processes (verbs) and circumstances. Projection is

presented through two typical processes: verbal processes and mental processes.
Projection processes are reliazed with the following verbs serving as process in
verbal and mental clauses:


8

 Verbs of saying: general verb say, verbs specific to speech function, verbs
with additional circumstantial feature, verbs with manner specifying
connotation.
 Mental verbs (verbs of cognition and desideration)
 Verbs of behaviour
 Adjectives for verbal projection (relational process)
Participants of projection processes have a variety of roles in different processes
they take part in. They may be a senser of the mental process or an actor and
behaver of the behavioural process or a carrier of the relational process. Their
significant feature is that of being endowed with consciousness. However, a sayer
of the verbal process is not necessarily a conscious being. Rather, it can be
anything that is capable of putting out a signal (Halliday 1994, 2012; Halliday &
Matthiessen 2004/2014; Eggins, 1994/ 2004; Hoàng Văn Vân 2002/2005, 2012).
Projection circumstances include two main types: matter and angle.
Circumstances of matter closely relate to both mental and verbal processes.
2.1.2. Projected clause
2.1.2.1. Grammatical characteristics
Projected clauses are realised through the binders (expletives), punctuation,
position and mood.
In quoting in written language, within the quotation marks, the projected
clause is separated from the projecting clause by a comma. In reporting, the
quotation marks are clipped away but there is the binder that or if/whether or a
word of WH- form in front of the projected clause. However, in many cases, the

binder that can be omitted without changing the meaning of the sentence.
In quoting, the quoted clauses are preserved in their original form, so they
can be any kind of clause mood. In contrast, mood of projected clauses in reporting
is limited, only the declarative mood (interrogative mood and exclamative mood
are not preserved through reporting).
2.1.2.2. Semantic characteristics
Table 2.2. The number and semantics of projected clauses in English
The number of projected clauses
Types
Total
Locution
idea
Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals
Novels
143
23
51
2
219
Newspapers
291
14
23
1
329
434
37
74
3
548

Total
(79,2%)
(6,7%)
(13,5%)
( 0,7%)
(100%)
According to the result of the survey, the propositions are used much more
than the proposals: 434 instances of propositions of locution (79,2%) v. locution
(6,7%); 74 propositions of idea (13,5%) are 24,7 times more than proposals of
idea. Especially, the limitation of proposals of idea (0,7%) in the corpus shows that
this kind of projection is not used popularly in English. Propositions and proposals
are projected by verbal and mental processes. However, in mental processes,


9

propositions are projected by cognitive processes whereas proposals are projected
by desiderative ones.
2.1. A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection above the clause in
Vietnamese
Table 2.3. The number of clause complexes of projection of verbal and mental
processes in Vietnamese.
The number of clause complexes of
Types
projection
Total
Verbal processes
Mental processes
Novels
257

64
321
Newspapers
202
53
255
Total
459 (79,7%)
117 (20,3%)
576 (100%)
2.2.1. Projecting clauses
2.2.1.1. Grammatical characteristics
The projecting clauses are realised through their positions, the punctuation
and binders.
The projecting clause in the Vietnmese clause complexes can be of 3
possible positions: initial, middle and final. When its position is initial, it is
separated from the projected clause by a comma or a colon. In reporting, the
projected clause and the projecting clause are linked together by the binder rằng or
là. However, in many cases, the binders rằng or là can be omitted but it doesn’t
change the meaning of the utterance. In Vietnamese, the binders rằng or là are
often associated with projecting clauses rather than projected clauses in reporting.
2.2.1.2. Semantic characteristics
Experiential meaning is realised through the following elements: participants,
processes (verbs) and circumstances. Projection processes occurring in the corpus
are realised through the following verbs:
 Verbs of saying: general verb say, verbs specific to speech function, verbs
with additional circumstantial feature, verbs with manner specifying
connotation.
 Mental verbs (verbs of cognition and desideration)
 Verbs of behaviour

 Verbs of state and mentality combining with “say”
Participants of projection processes are very various and they are realised
through nominal groups. The participants working as sensors, actors, behavers, and
carriers must be endowed with consciousness. However, a sayer of the verbal
process is not necessarily a conscious being. Rather, it can be anything that is
capable of putting out a signal.
There is always a strong collocation of circumstances of matter with verbal
processes and certain mental ones. In other words, the circumstances being
associated with projection processes in the corpus include that of matter and angle.
2.2.2. Projected clauses
2.2.2.1. Grammatical characteristics


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Projected clauses in Vietnamese are realised through the punctuation and
mood.
In quoting, the projected clause is put at the beginning of the new line
following a dash. In hypotactic clause complexes of reporting, the binders rằng or
là are often associated with the projected clause rather than the projecting clause.
In paratactic clause complexes of reporting, the projecting clause is separated from
the projected clause by a comma or a colon and a dash. In quoting, the projected
clauses have a variety of mood. In contrast, mood of the projected clauses in
reporting is restricted with the only one of declaration.
2.2.2.2. Semantic characteristics
Table 2.4. The number and function of projected clauses in Vietnamese
The number of projected clauses
Types
Locutions
Ideas

Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals
Novels
224
26
59
5
Newspapers
184
18
50
3
Total
408
44
109
8
(71,7%)
(7,7%)
(19,2%)
(1,4%)

Total
314
255
569
(100%)

The result of the survey shows that the projected clauses that are
propositions of locutions are used much more than that of verbal proposals. 408
instances of propositions of locution (71,7%) are 9,3 times more than verbal

proposals in the corpus. 109 instances of mental propositions (19,2%) are 13,6
times more than mental proposals. The proposals of ideas are hardly used for both
novels and newspapers in the corpus, too. This means that in mental and verbal
projections the functions of giving and demanding information by making a
statement or asking a question are used much more than that of giving and
demanding goods-&-services by making an offer or a command.
2.3. A grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection above
clause in English and Vietnamese
2.3.1. Similarities
2.3.1.1. Similarities in grammar
In English and Vietnamese clause complexes of projection (mental and verbal
processes), the rate of middle position and final position of projected clauses is
nearly equal and it is also significantly less than that of initial position. Especially
for newspapers, middle position and final position of projected clauses in clause
complexes of projection rarely occurs in the corpus.
In English, in declarative mood the projected clause in the initial position is
connected to the projecting clause by the binder that, whereas by rằng or là in
Vietnamese. In many cases, the binders that in English clause complexes of
projection and rằng or là in Vietnamese clause complexes of projection can be
omitted without changing the meaning of the utterance.
In both of the languages, the instances of quoted verbal projection are much
more than that of reported verbal one. Beside that reported mental projection is


11

much favour over the quoted mental one, which affirms the correctness of
Halliday’s statement (2012) that the function of the paratactic structure is to
represent the wording; whereas with the hypotactic the function is to represent the
sense, or gist.

2.3.1.2. Similarities in semantics
In both English and Vietnamese, the projected clause is executed by a verbal
process or a mental process or a behaviour one. In the clause complex of verbal
projection, the projecting clause is a verbal process, and the projected clause has
the status of a wording. In this case, the projected clause here stands for a wording.
The phenomenon it represents is a lexicogramatical one, something that is itself a
representation or also called metaphenomenon (Halliday, 1994, 2012 and Halliday
& Matthiessen, 2004/2014).
In both English and Vietnamese, quoted and reported projection are carried
out through verbs of saying or mental verbs, but verbs of behaviour are only used
for quoted projection.
No instances of behavioural processes and relational ones in the corpus go
with projected clauses in both English and Vietnmese novels and newspapers,
which means that for newspapers the projected clauses focus on projecting
information itself rather than contextual elements in both of the languages. In
contrast, the verbal processes account for the highest percentage of instances of
projection in the English and Vietnamese corpus (93% and 79,2%).
For novels, most of the projection processes (verbs) are used in both of the
languages with different frequence. This shows that projection is used variously in
both of English and Vietnamese. Moreover, no verbs involving some additional
connotation are found in both English and Vietnamese data of newspapers.
2.3.2. Differences
2.3.2.1. Diffirences in grammar
In English, the rate of the initial position, the middle position and the final
one of projected clauses is nearly equal, whereas in Vietnamese the rate of them is
very different at 93,7%; 0,8% and 5,5% in succession. The middle position and
the final one of projected clauses in the clause complexes in English are more
popular than in Vietnamese.
For quoting, there can be exchanges of the position between the sayer and the
process (verb) and vice versa in the English projected clauses, whereas there

cannot be in Vietnamese because of its linear order of the words.
In Vietnamese, the binders rằng or là is used in both interrogative mood and
declarative mood in reporting projection. In contrast, in English the binder that
can’t be used to link the projected clause and the projecting clause in the
interrogative mood in reporting projection. In this case, that has to be replaced by
if or whether. Moreover, in Vietnamese the binders rằng or là can be omitted in
both interrogative mood and declarative mood in reporting projection, while in
English that can be omitted but if or whether cannot. In addition, in English the
binder that tends to be associated with projected clauses, whereas in Vietnamese
binders rằng or là tend to connect closely to projecting clauses.


12

Tenses of verbs in English projected clauses are very various, but in
Vietnamese tenses of verbs do not belong to any grammatical categories (form of
Vietnamese verbs cannot be changed to express different time periods). Therefore,
the agreement of the subject and the verb in the projecting clause and the projected
one is not expressed or is not always made explicit.
2.3.2.2. Differences in semantics
Table 2.5. Frequency of different projection verbs in English and Vietanmese
novels and newspapers
Types of verbs
General verb say
Verbs specific to
different speech
function
Verbs with
manner
Verbal specifying

Process connotation
Verbs with
additional
circumstantial
feature
Verbs of saying
showing ideas
Verbs of
cognition/
emotion showing
Mental
ideas.
Process
Verbs of
cognition
showing locution
Verbs of
behaviour
Behavi showing locution
-our
Verbs of state and
Process mentality
showing locution
Relatio
-nal
Adjectives for
Process verbal projection
Total

Frequency in English

Nov
newspa
els
%
pers
%
88 39,6%
221
67,2%

Frequency in Vietnamese
nov
%
newspa
%
els
pers
14
4,4%
19
7,5%

22

9,9%

49

14,9%

40

12,5%

108

42,4%

33

14,9%

0

0%

29

9,0%

0

0%

6

2,7%

35

10,6%

16

5,0%

75

29,4%

1

0,5%

1

0,3%

11

3,4%

0

0%

52

23,4%

23

7%

53

16,5%

53

20,8%

0

0%

0

0%

2

0,6%

0

0%

18

8,1%

0

0%

138

43,0%

0

0%

0

0%

0

0%

18

5,6%

0

0%

2
222

0,9%
100%

0
329

0%
100%

0
321

0%
100%

0
255

0%
100%

The result of the survey shows that the general verb say occupies the highest
rate (67,2%) in the data of English newspapers. This rate is 11,6 times more than
that in Vietnamese. In English novels, the general verb say also used the most
popularly and widely making up 39,6% (88 instances). In contrast, in Vietnamese
verbs specific to different speech function account for the highest proportion
(42,4%) in newspapers, and verbs of behaviour in novels accounts for the highest

13

rate with 138 instances (43%). This shows that circumstantial elements and
behaviours combining saying are preferred in verbal projection in Vietnamese
rather than in English.
Beside projection processes, English projected clauses are carried out by a
relational process (but hardly) through an adjective for projection (adjectives of
manners, attitudes, emotion and gestures). In Vietnamese, beside verbs of saying,
mental verbs and verbs of behaviour with potential of projection, the projected
clause can be executed by verbs of state or mentality, especially in verbal
processes.
According to the survey, there is a big difference between the usage of verb
say in English and verb nói in Vietnamese (both in the frequency and range). The
verb say in English is used more widely and variously than verb nói in Vietnamese.
Summary of Chapter 2
In this chapter, we have analysed and compared projection above the clause
in English and Vietnamese. The result of the survey indicates that there are
similarities and diffrences in use of projection in both of the languages.
Projection above the clause in both of the languages is realised through the
constiuent claused: projecting clauses and projected clauses, and has similaries of
the realisation and operation. However, in fact there are differences of using
projection. For grammatical features, it is common that the subject – sayer and the
verb – projecting process of the projecting clause are inverted just in English, not
in Vietnamese. Moreover, the binders between the projecting clause and the
projected clause in Engish are more complitcated than in Vietnamese. For
sementic features, beside verbs of saying, verbs of mental and verbs of behaviours
with projecting potentials, English adjectives of manners or emotion can be used
for projection, although in a limitation, whereas in Vietnamese, projection can be

executed through verbs of state or mentality.
CHAPTER 3
A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF
PROJECTION IN THE CLAUSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
3.1. A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection in the clause in
English
3.1.1. Minor projecting clauses: Circumstances of projection
Under the light of the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL),
prepositional phrases of projection include circumstances of matter and angle.
Table 3.1. The number of circumstances of matter and angle in English
Types
The number of circumstances
Total
Matter
Angle
Novels
14
5
19
Newspapers
10
25
35
Total
24 (44,4%)
30 (55,6%)
54 (100%)
3.1.1. 1. Grammatical characteristics

14

Grammatical characteristics of prepositional phrases of projection
(circumstances of matter and angle) are realized through the position, markers and
grammar functions in the complexes.
The basic realisation of circumstances of angle including for myself, for me
for him/her, to me (với tôi), … is found at a low rate in the data source. On the
contrary, the complecated ones such as in my opinion (theo quan điểm của tôi),
in…eyes, according to are very popular. Beside circumstances of angle, the ones of
matter are found at the lower rate. They takes the roles of verbiage in verbal
processes or phenomenon in mental processes. They are realized through
prepositions such as of, about, for.
For circumstances of angle, their positions in the clause is initial or final, but
the position of circumstances of matter is always final, after mental or verbal
processes.
For syntax functions, circumstances of angle are adverbial, but
circumstances of matter are complement in the clause. According to the theory of
SFG, the structure of declarative mood in English includes subject + finite +
predicator + complement + Adjunct. The adjunct conflates the circumstance in
experiential meanings of the clause.
3.1.1.2. Semantic characteristics
Circumstances of angle are equivalent to minor verbal or mental clauses.
Circumstances of matter correspond to a verbiage in verbal processes or a
phenomenon in mental processes.
3.1.2. Projection below the clause: nominal groups with embedded projection
Table 3.2. The number of nominal groups with embedded projection in English
The number of nominal groups with embedded
Types
projection
Total

Locution
Idea
Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals
Novels
4
0
21
4
29
Newspapers
18
5
14
15
52
Total
22 (27,2%)
5
35 (43,2%) 19 (23,5%)
81
(6,2%)
(100%)
3.1.2.1. Grammatical characteristics
Grammatical characteristics of nominal groups with embedded projection
are realized through the presentation, positions and syntax functions. The projected
element of nominal groups with embedded projection can be a clause or a group
of words (phrase).
The realization of nominal groups with embedded projection as qualifiers
(Post-modifiers) is presented below.
(1) Propositions:

(a) Stating: projected clause either (i) finite, that + indirect indicative; or (ii) nonfinite, of + imperfective


15

(b) Questioning: projected clause either (i) finite, if/whether or WH- + indirect
indicative; or (ii) non-finite, whether or WH- + to + imperfective
(2) Proposals:
(a) Offering (including suggesting): projected clause either (i) non-finite, to +
perfective or of + imperfective, or (ii) finite, future indirect indicative.
(b) Commanding: projected clause either (i) non-finite, to + perfective, or (ii)
finite, modulated or future indirect indicative.
Besides that the projected element of nominal groups with embedded
projection is a clause, it can be a group of words with markers or binders such as
on, of, about,….
3.1.2.2. Semantic characteristics
In nominal groups with embedded projection, the noun is the name of a
locution or an idea. They are defined or expanded with a clause or a group of
words as a post-modifier. Nouns that project belong to clearly defined classes,
verbal process nouns (locutions) and mental process nouns (ideas) as the head of
the nominal groups.
3.1.3. Projection below the clause: Nominal groups of fact
For the structure, a fact noun serves as the head/thing of a nominal group
with a projected clause or a noun of projection as postmodifier/ qualifier. There are
four sub-classes of fact noun: cases, chances, proofs and needs. Furthermore, a fact
can appear as a nominalization with the function of a head. Beside the two forms
of fact in the data, it may be projected impersonally, either by a relational process
or by an impersonal mental or verbal process.
The fact noun can be initial as a subject or behind the verb as a complement
or as an adjunct.

3.1.3.2. Semantic characteristics
There are four sub-classes of fact noun: (1) cases, (2) chances,(3) proofs and
(4) needs. The speech functional subcategories of nominal groups of fact are
propositions and proposals.
Nouns of fact serves as Head/Thing of the nominal group that can turn
projecting a personal opinion into projection an objective reality. This means that
the opinion of the writer is hidden. According to Halliday (2012), a fact is a kind
of idea: one that has been so fully semanticized that is no longer explicitly
projected, but it is already wrapped and packaged to take its place in linguistic
structure.
3.1.4. Verbal groups of projection
Table 3.4. The number of verbal groups of projection in English
The number of verbal groups of projection
Types
Locution
Idea
Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals
Novels
0
2
1
12
Newspapers
0
13
0
22
Total
0 (0%)
15 (30%)

1 (2%)
34 (68%)

Total
15
35
50 (100%)


16

3.1.4.1. Grammatical characteristics
The grammatical characteristics of verbal groups of projection are realised
through their realization, positions, and grammatical functions.
The structure of a hypotactic verbal group complex consists of two
constituent verbs with unequal status, one serving as the dominant element and the
remainder as dependent ones. The dominant verb – a verbal process or a mental
process is connected with the next one by the binder to, or sometimes by no binder.
A hypotactic verbal group complex of projection often stands after the
subject and has function as a predicator of a clause. The binder to is an obligatory
element between two constituent verbs if the second verb is in perfective aspect. It
does not exist if the second verb is in imperfective aspect.
3.1.4.2. Semantic characteristics
Function of a hypotactic verbal group complex of projection is to project
propositions or proposals. The time reference of projecting verb is different from
that of the second verb (the projected one). In other words, the two constituent
elements of a hypotactic verbal group complex of projection have distinct time
references.
3.2. A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection in the clause in
Vietnamese

3.2.1. Minor projecting clauses: Circumstances of projection
3.2.1.1. Grammatical characteristics
Grammatical charateristics of an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase
are realised through the realisation, positions, and grammatical functions. Instances
of the simple realisation of circumstances of angle in Vietnamese are prepositions
such as theo (tôi), theo ý (anh), với …. The more complicated ones – preposition
complexes such as dẫn lời…, dưới (con) mắt của (tôi)… also occur in the corpus,
althought at the limitted rate.
In Vietnamese, circumstances of matter are typically realised as a
prepositional phrase with common prepositions such as về, đến, … In fact, these
prepositions are sometimes not compulsory in the circumstances of matter in
verbal processes beacause their absence does not make any change in the meaning
of the clause.
Circumstances of angle can be initial in the clause and seperated from the
main clause by a comma, or final (at the end of the clause); whereas circumstances
of matter is only after verbs of saying or mental verbs. Unlike circumstances of
angle, that of matter is hardly initial.
Grammatical function of circumstances of angle is to work as an adverbial
group, and that of circumstances of matter is a complement in a sentence of
traditional gramar or an adjunct of Systemic Functional Grammar.


17

3.2.1.2. Semantics characteristics
According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2002/2005), a circumstance of angle actually
construes the meaning of saying in a verbal clause complex or sensing in a mental
clause complex and it generally answers the question Theo ai/cái gì/ Theo quan
điểm của ai? (Đối với ai/ Với cái gì?) (According to who/what/In whose opinion?).
A circumstance of angle generally shows the subjective source of

information through the prepositional complexes such as Theo quan điểm của tôi,
Trong mắt tôi,... or the objective one through the prepositional phrases such as
Theo số liệu thống kê của Liên hợp quốc, Dưới mắt thằng Tường,... Characteristic
of a circumstantial of matter is that there is always a strong collocation of this type
of circumstance with verbal processes and certain mental processes (mainly
cognitive). It works as a verbiage of the verbal process or a phenomenon of the
mental process. It generally answers the question về cái gì (what about?).
3.2.2. Projection below the clause: Nominal groups with embedded projection
3.2.2.1. Grammatical charateristics
Grammatical characteristics of nominal groups with embedded projection is
realised through the realisation, positions and grammatical functions.
The projected element of nominal groups with embedded projection can be
a clause or a group of words (phrase). The binders rằng or là are used to link a
noun of projection and a embedded projection clause, while a noun of projection is
connected with a embedded projection phrase by the binders về or của. In
Vietnamese, the binders rằng or là tend to relate to the noun of projection rather
than the embedded projection clause, and the binders về or của associate with a
embedded projection phrase functioning as a qualifier in a nominal group rather
than the noun of projection. However, in many cases the binders rằng or là can be
omitted without changing the meaning of the clause, even they may be replaced by
a comma.
In Vietnamese, nominal groups with embedded projection can be initial and
either works as a head or a thing (more rarely) to function a subject of a clause, or
stand after a verb working as a complement (more popolar).
3.2.2.2. Semantic charateristics
Nominal groups with embedded projection consist of a noun of projection,
the name of a locution or an idea, and the clause or phrase that it projects. The
noun of projection can be a verbal process noun (locutions) or a mental process
noun (ideas). It may be defined by a projected clause or a projected phrase
functioning as a thing or a qualifier. A noun of projection of nominal groups with

embedded projection generally projects a proposition which is an exchange of
information or a proposal which is an exchange of goods-&-services.
3.2.3. Projection below the clause: Nominal groups of fact


18

3.2.3.1. Grammatical characteristics
A nominal group of fact has a verbal or mental process noun (locution or
idea) as its head. There are four subclasses of fact noun (1) cases, (2) chances,(3)
proofs and (4) needs. A fact noun serves as the head or thing of a nominal group
with a projected clause or a projected phrase as postmodifer or qualifier with or
without requiring a binder such as rằng or là. A projected phrase serving as the
postmodifier or qualifier generally requires the binder của, về to be connected with
the fact noun. Moreover, a fact clause in a nominal group without a fact noun can
appear in embedded form as a nominalization on its own functioning as a head of
the clause.
3.2.3.2. Semantic characteristics
A fact is an impersonal projection, but it is possible for a fact to enter into a
mental or a verbal process clause without being projected by it. In Vietnamese, the
most used fact nouns belong to the first class – that of case (nouns of simple fact)
which relate to ordinary non-modalization propositions, especially in newspapers.
According to Nguyễn Văn Hiệp (2009:359), nominalised affairs are
backward and are reputed to be supposed/ hypothesised events, not at the speaking
time.
3.2.4. Projection under the clause: Verbal groups of projection
3.2.4.1. Grammatical characteristics
Grammatical characteristics of verbal groups of projection are realised
through the realisation, the positions, the order of words, and the grammatical
functions.

Structures of verbal groups of projection consits of a verb of saying or a
mental verb as a head and another verb of different processes. Verbal groups of
projection generally stand after a subject and have a function of verbial. In
Vietnamese, verbal groups of projection do not require a binder, but the verbs are
put in a linear order.
3.2.4.2. Semantic characteristics
In verbal groups of projection, the verb of saying or mental verb as a head
often generally projects the other verb standing after it. However, the time
reference of the two verbs are not at the same time. The time reference of the verb
of saying or mental verb is different from that of the verb being projected by it. In
verbal groups of projection, the second verb is a projected element that can be a
proposition or a proposal.
3.3. A grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection in the
clause in English and Vietnamese.
3.3.1. Similarities


19

3.3.1.1. Grammatical characteristics
 Circumstances of projection
The configuration of a circumstance of projection consits of a preposition as
a centre element and an expansion for it. For the function, circumstances of matter
in both english and Vietnamese are related to verbal and mental clauses. In turn, it
is the circumstantial equivelant of the verbiage that is described, referred to,
narrated, etc or the phenomenon. The position of a circumstance of angle is often
initial, sometimes final functioning as an adjunct in a clause.
 Nominal groups with embedded projection
In both Enlish and Vietnamese, projetion nouns are followed by an embedded
projection clause or a projected noun phrase as a qualifier or a post-modifier

within nominal groups of embedded projection. There are also binders in this type
of projection in the two languages. Nominal groups of embedded projection can
function as a subject or complement of the clause.
 Nominal groups of fact
In English and Vietnamese, the nouns of fact are accompanied by embedded
projection clause or a projected noun phrase as a qualifier or a post-modifier.
Moreover, they can refer to a nomalisation as the head of the clause.
 Verbal groups of projection
In both of the two languages, verbal groups of projection generally have a
verb of saying or a mental verb as a centre element of it. The front verb projects
the action of the following verb. The verbal groups of projection generally stand
after the subject and function as a predicator of the clause.
3.3.1.2. Charateristics of sementics
 Circumstances of projection
For sementics, circumstances of angle in English and Vietnamese project
someone’s opinion or view. In other words, they show the source of information.
Therefore, they can be objective (from outside factors), or subjective (from the
speaker’s view).
 Nominal groups with embedded projection
In both English and Vietnamese, nouns that project belong to either verbal
process nouns (locutions) or mental process nouns (ideas). They generally project
a proposition which is an exchange of information or a proposal which is an
exchange of goods-&-services. In newspapers, nominal groups with embedded
projection seem to be used more widely than in novels in both of the two
languages.
 Nominal groups of fact


20

In Englishand Vietnamese, it is possible for a fact to enter into a mental
process without being projected by it. It seems to be ready packaged in projected
form. A fact can be appear only in embedded form: either as qualifier to a fact
noun or as a nomalisation on its own. There are four sub-classes of fact noun: (1)
cases, (2) chances,(3) proofs and (4) needs. The embedded projection clause
qualifying a fact noun are objectified (Halliday, 2012). Therefore, fact functions as
a participant and enter as constituents into the structure of other clauses.
 Verbal groups of projection
In verbal groups of projection, the front verb (generally a verbal process or a
mental process) projects a proposition (information) or a proposal (offering and
commanding) that is realised by the following verb.
3.3.2. Differences
3.3.2.1. Grammatical characteristics
 Circumstances of projection
In Vietnamese, the preposition về of circumstances of matter can be omitted.
Its absence in circumstances of matter related to verbal processes seems not to
change the meaning of the clause in Vietnamese. However, the prepostions of,
about,... are obligatory binders as fixed constituents in English circumstances of
matter.
 Nominal groups with embedded projection
In Vietnamese, the binders rằng or là are used to link the noun of projection
and the projected clause. In many cases, they can be omitted without changing the
meaning of the clause. However, in English the binder that cannot be omitted
because it is an obligatory element of grammatical structure of these cases.
In Vietnamese, tenses are not very obvious. Vietnamese belongs to type of
the isolating language, so the notions of being finite, non-finite, perfective and
imperfective cannot be applied for the embedded clauses that are projected by a
verbal process noun or a mental process noun.
 Nominal groups of fact
The sub-class of fact nouns related to propositions with indications, which

are equivalent to caused modalities, tends to be used more widely in English, but
hardly in Vietnamese. The reason is that in Vietnamese the expression nó có thể là
trường hợp rằng... (it may be the case that) is impossible and unnatural.
A fact may be projected impersonally, either by a relative process or by an
impersonal mental or verbal process. This type of projetcion is available in English
but not in Vietnamese corpus. This shows that it is hardly or not used in
Vietnamese. There are some projection clause complexes without the subject such
as nghe nói là, nghe đồn rằng in Vietnamse. In these cases, the subject is omitted


21

or hinden (generally the subject I or we), but they cannot be a fact projected
impersonally (or impersonal projection).
 Verbal groups of projection
The binder in verbal groups of projection generally is that, but there are no
binders in Vietnamese. Instead of the binder that, the linear word order is used.
Verbal groups of projection which have a mental verb as the centre projecting
proposals (goods-&- services) tend to be used widely in English newspapers than
in Vietnamese. In contrast, they seem to be used more commonly in Vietnamese
novels than in English.
3.3.2.2. Sementic characteristics
Nominal groups of fact, verbal groups of projection and circumstances of
projection seem to have no differences of sementic characteristics in both English
and Vietnamese.
In English, nominal groups with embedded projection corresponding with
propositions and proposals of ideas tend to be used more widespreadly than in
Vietnamese. The instances of propositions of locution can be found in both
English newspapers and novels, but they only appear in Vietnamese newspapers.
Summary of Chapter 3

In summary, in this chapter we have done a survey and analylised projecion
in and below the clause in both of the languages: English and Vietnamese. Thanks
to the results of the survey, we have found that projetcion appear in both of the
levels of projection in the corpus of English and Vietnamese: in the simple clause
and below the clause (word phrases) with the features of similarities and
differences.
CONCLUSION
In this dissertation, we have carried out a grammatical and semantic
contrastive analysis of projection in English and Vietnamese basing on the
framework of projection in SFL developed by Halliday and his students in order to
find out the similarities and differences of projection in English and Vietnamese. It
has provided an overall view of projection in the light of SFG basing on the data in
English and Vietnamese. It has showed the following findings:
1. The study systemized and clarified theoretical issues about projection,
which provides a workframe of projectition at different levels: abover the clause,
in the clause and below the clause. This makes the comparing and contrasting
grammatical and sementic chracteristics of projection clearer.
2. For projection above the clause, the study found out and clarify the
similarities and differences of grammatical and semantic characteristics of
projecting clauses and projected clauses.
Similarities of projection above the clause


22

First, in both English and Vietnamese it is realised through the constituent
clauses, namely: a projecting clause and a projected clause. A projecting clause has
a function showing that the other clause in the complex is projected in the two
basic modes: quoting and reporting. A projected clause can be information
(propositions) or goods and services (proposals) and can be of any kind of clause

moods.
Second, positions of the projected clauses can be initial, middle or final in
the clause complexes of projection. Projected clauses and projecting clauses are
connected by a binder.
Third, projected clauses are realised by verbal processes, mental processes
or behavioural processes.
Fourth, there are similarities of usage level of projection above the clause in
newspapers and novels in both English and Vietnamese. Quoted projection
generally correspond with novel while reporting projection correspond with
newspapers due to their specific function of information.
Differences of projection above the clause
First, subject-verb inversion is only used in English, not in Vietnamese; the
binders between projecting clauses and projected clauses in English are used in
more complicated way than in Vietnamese.
Second, in verbal processes the general verb say in English are used more
popularly and widely than the verb nói in Vietnamese. It is used to exchange
information or goods and services in various cases. In contrast, in Vietnamese
verbs specific to different speech function are generally used to carry out
projection.
Third, in Vietnamese mental processes of cognition are used to project
locutions, which does not appear in English.
Fourth, while in English a projected clause can be realised through a
relational process with an adjective for projection, in Vietnamese a verb showing
state or mentality is used for projection.
3. For projection in the clause, the study found out and clarify the
similarities and differences of grammatical and sementic characteristics of
projection corresponding to the clause (prepositional phrases of projection) and
projection below the clause (nominal groups with embedded projection, nominal
groups of fact and verbal groups of projection).
Similarities of projection in the clause:

For circumstances (prepositional phrases of projection), they consist of a
preposition as a centre element and its expansion. Prepositions in English and
Vietnamese belong to both of the two forms: single words and word complexes.
For the sementic characteristics, circumstances of matter generally correspond to
the verbiage (something that is described, referred to, narrated, etc) in verbal
processes or the phenomenon in mental processes. A circumstance of angle
generally shows the source of information, either subjective or objective.
In both English and Vietnamese, nominal groups with embedded projection
consist of an embedded clause or a word complex as a qualifier or post-modifier.