Chính sách đảm bảo tiếp cận giáo dục cơ bản đối với người dân tộc thiểu số vùng tây bắc tt tiếng anh

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CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
POLICIES ON ASSURANCE FOR
GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS, ETHNIC MINORITIES
1.1. The necessity of the thesis
1.1.1 Rationales
Northwestern region is regarded as the core of Northern midland and
mountainous area. This is the habitat of more than 11,6 million residents,
rooted from more than 30 ethnic groups, of which, about 63% belongs to
ethnic minorities. Northwestern region is the strategic zone with typical
geographical features in terms of national defence, security, potential for
natural resources and cultural traditions of ethnic people. However, the
access to general education here is still limited. Particularly, in 304 most
difficult communes, the number of settled classes is inadequate, 15.930
villages have not established kindergarten; the quality of education and
human resource is low: nearly 21% ethnic minorities (in school age) is
illiterate, the number of untrained people (in working age) reaches 89,5%;
especially, that number of ethnic minorities is 94,2% (the highest ones
respectively are Mảng 98,7%, La Hủ 97,7%, Xinh Mun 94,6%, Lô Lô
93,3%); Under the context of more rapid and stronger socio-economic gap,
Northernwestern might be left behind in regard of economic, educational and
social aspects; which results in serious problems related to security, politics
and society. Therefore, the thesis on “Policies on assurance for general
education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region” was explored
and carried out through an experimental study.
1.1.2 Literature review on policies on assurance for general education
access for ethnic minorities
1.1.2.1. Domestic studies
Hà Quế Lâm (2002), Phạm Văn Dương (2003), Hoàng Văn Phấn
(2004), Nguyễn Thị Nhung (2012), Nguyễn Lâm Thành (2014), Nguyễn Thị
Thu Hà et. al (2015) agrred on the criterion to identify and reflect the situation

of ethnic minorities, which should include income, expenses, living
conditions as well as possibilities to access to essential services (heathcare,
education, electricity, water resource, market, etc). Phạm Thái Hưng et. al,
(2008) conducted an evaluation on Program 135 Period II, National target
program on poverty reduction, Resolution 30a, Clean water and sanitation in
rural areas, Education for everyone, Program 134 and other poverty
reductioni programs. These authors aimed at (i) Fostering the assess to
services linked with healthcare, education, vocational training, legislative

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support, housing and water resource; (ii) Providing assistance for production
development through policies in terms of previledged credit; land for poor
households of ethnic minorities; agriculture, forestry and fisheries; job
development; labor export; (iii) Improving fundamental infrastructure for
most difficult communes. The research by Trần Thị Hạnh, Phan Văn Hùng
and Nguyễn Cao Thịnh (UNDP-CEMA 2011) focused on an analysis into
policies related to assurance for education and healthcare for ethnic
minorities and mountainous people. They also pointed out drawbacks of
these policies. Phạm Ngọc Thưởng (2012) indictaed minus points of current
kindergarten education policies for ethnic minorities. In the period of 20072012, 22,1% households escaped from poverty whereas up to 14,3% others
committed to this situation. The poverty rate reduced from 57,5% to 49,2%
compared with target of 30%. The rate of primary and lower secondary
school enrollment at the right age is greatly lower than the requirements
(85,4% compared with 95%; 70,9% compared with 75% respectively). In
addition, the level of objective achievement is highy different among various
ethnic groups. So, it is necessary to obtain more support for these communes
based on future programs with more effecve design and focus on typical

conditions, demands and culture of specific ethnic groups.
1.1.2.2. International studies
International studies on assurance for education access of ethnic
minorities: The study by Kamrul (2013) was carried out with reliance on the
evaluation related to project namely “Inter-community development” in
Bangladesh from 2000 to 2012. This project aimed at a happier life for
mother and children in diffcult families in Chittagong hill, Bangladesh- the
area with 13 different ehtnic minorities, who were usually exposed to the
shortage of clean water, inadequate education facilities, weak
communication, other social problems and racial discrimination. The focus
of this project was the estblishment of commnunity support centers; preschool shemes for children, programs for students at primary and lower
secondary schools; programs on healthcare education, sanitation and income
generation for the poor.
Studies on perspectives and guanranteeing policies on access to
general education for ethnic minorities:WEF (2015) announced Incheon
declaration on global education forum in 2015, when ministries of eduation
from involving countries agreed on their commitment to objectives and
orientations of millennium education policy and policy on education for
everyone. This commitment was reflected by the following points: (i)
compulsory and generalized education; (ii) equality and integration; (iii)

financial organizations and policy banks to develop the network of credit
loans for residents to help households improve economic conditions and be
afford to pay for their children to go to school at the right age and avoid
school dropping for early participation in the workforce, especially, policies
for students rooted from Northwestern region to continue and complete
general education based on sponsorship; (ii) policies on propagandizing and
attracting students of ethnic minorities in Northwestern region to go to
school.
5.2.3 Solutions to complete policies on infrastructure development for

Northwestern region:
(i) Fostering medium-term investment policies in the period of 2021-2025 on
road system, inter-village to ensure convenience for residents and their
children to go to schools. Capital source might be called from the state budget
or BOT, BT; (ii) Improving investment in infrastructure for electricity lines,
communication lines, radio wave and television cables to provide multiconnection for residents with the community nationwide and worldwide, which
helps tp propagandize legislations about education generalization.
5.3. Recommendations and proposals to the state authorities: Continuing
the medium-term investment capital in the period of 2021-2025 for
infrastructure, schools, classrooms and repairation for schools in difficult
places. Assembly’s considering spending annual government budget for
provinces with low income; incapability of budget self-balance; impossibility for
investment in infrastructure for daily boarding lower secondary schools with
ethnic girls, especially investment in rooms for public services for teachers and
daily boarding rooms for students. Organizing compulsory classes teaching
and learning ethinic language and bilingual mastery (mother tounge and
Vietnamese) at primary level only, encouraging and providing favorable
conditions for self-study of speaking and writing ethnic language (if there is)
in an optional basis at higher education levels. Ministry of education and
training’s compiling coursebooks, supplementary teaching and learning in
appropriate with students rooted from ethnic minorities.


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groups in Northwestern region had a positive impact on students’ motivation
to go to school and the limitation of dropping out. There was positive
contribution of factors like activities of Student-parent association,

commune’s study encouragement association, women association, and youth
union...
CHAPTER 5: ORIENTATION AND SOLUTIONS TO THE
COMPLETION OF POLICIES ON ASSURANCE FOR
GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES IN
NORTHWESTERN REGION
5.1 Policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities
in Northwestern region towards 2025, orientation towards 2030:
Northwestern region has the most important location in terms of national
defence and security of the country. Then, the access to general education for
ethnic minorities is crucial to improve education standard, raise awareness
and foster lesgislative ideology. Specific objectives are related to the
implementation of those of policies on general education for ethnic
minorities, which are committed in Millenimum development goals in terms
of education for ethic minorities (Decision 1557/QĐ-TTg)
5.2. Solutions to the completion of policies on assurance for general
education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region
5.2.1 Solutions to improve capability of institutions’ supply ethnic
minorities with general education service in Northwestern region
5.2.1.1. Solutions related to contents of important policies: (i) Completing
the contents of policies on investment in infrastructure for schools; (ii)
Completing contents of policies on finance support for teachers; (iii)
Completing contents of policies on propagandizing general education in local
authorities and schools.
5.2.1.2. Solutions related to management of policies on general education
access assurance for ethnic minorities on Northwestern region: (i)
Promoting training courses and quality improvement for human resource of
ministries, sectors and the Assembly, who participate in the research and
issue of policies on education access for ethnic minorities; (ii) Implementing
policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern

region, which is in relevance with better improvement of capacity of local
managers and authorities being in charge of policies on education access in
Northwestern region; (iii) Carrying out investigation and control for policies
on education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region.
5.2.2 Solutions to improve ethnic minority students’ support and attraction
in Northwestern region: (i) Financial policies on encouraging micro-

policies and legislation; (iv) state budget for education sponsorship. Mehrotra,
Vandermoortele et. al, (2000) demonstrated that the government should take
responsibility for providing service of general education in particular and
other fundamental services in general for people. According to Polacek
(2011), the government should be in charge of establishing institutions and
legislative frame for education services, including general education. Oguzor
(2011) supposed that crucial components for rural development should be
related to the responsibility of public sector. Polacek (2011) indicated that
both public and provate sectors should get involved in the process of
supplying basic social services. Guo (2004) stated that the supply of social
services should be carried out by non-profit nd profit organizations. Matthew
V. Coleman (2012) pointed out that Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Cambodia
focused on general education for mountainous and ethnic people based on
their implementation of International commitment to education for everyone
and Commitment to millennium objectives Jessica Berns, (2008) studied the
system of perspectives and education policies of 10 countries (Brazil,
Canada, England, Israel, Malaysia, The Netherlands, Northern Ireland,
Rwanda, South Africa, United States of America) and figured out that the
purpose of education policies should move forward the assurance and
compulsory of education from primary school for all children without any
racial discrimination at the school age. Meichen Lu1 et al (2016) proved that
Chinese government made great efforts in issuing policies on reducing the
number of children not going to school from early of 2000s and setting up

national target of education generalization (Lo, 1999; Hawkins, 1992; Liu,
2004; Yi, 2012). However, in China, there was hardly any study on decisive
factors for dropping out primary school (Hannum, 2002; Hannum et al. 2008;
Hannum and Wang 2010). Rui Yang & Mei Wu, (2009) explored the issue
of general education since the establishment of People’s republic of China in
the late of 1949s and education for ethnic groups. In the research by MA
Rong (2009), it was identified that the government at Xinjiang autonomous
region introduced apparent policies on language for teaching, which was based
on the language of the ethnic people in the region.
Studies on factors influencing the assurance for general education
service: Estevez-Abe, Iversen et. al (2001) stated that the establishment and
development of staff specializing in social affairs under the context of
market oriented economy would be another condition affecting the supply
of education service in particular and basic social services in general for
disadvantaged and ethnic groups. Phathombut Keawsomnuk (2017)
demonstrated elements that would have an impact on education policy for

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ethnic minorities in moutainous and boundary areas in Thailan, which
covered 5 items: (1) authority of primary school service, (2) local
community, (3) non-government agency; (4) learners; (5) institutions. These
elements had a positive relationship with education policies for ethnic
minorities. Eowin and Lisa (2012) studied and applied 5 other elements
that would affect education policies, which were comprised of: (1) nongovernement organizations and benefit groups; (2) authorities,
consultants and institutions; (3) unofficial personal relationships; (4)
communication on policies and (5) purposes of policies’ makers. Matthew
V. Coleman (2012) implied in his study four basic factors putting impact on

education for people in moutainous areas in Laos, Vietnam, Thailan and
Cambodia, namely: culture; socio-economy; the state’s policies related to
education; and local road infrastructure. Trương Huyen Chi, (2011) pointed
out 3 main factors that would influence the policies by Vietnam’s
government, including: investment in school construction, school
infrastructure; scholarship and financial support; and ethnic language
teaching and learning at school. Peter Chaudhry (2012), LAW Koon-chui,
Agnes et al, (2012) figured out another big hindrance, which was linked with
language. Different studies on the assurance for general education service
also provided a description of the reality and an evaluation on certain
aspects of the assurance from their own perspectives in a separate and
independent basis without any general assessment on any policies serving
the access to general education for ethnic minorities.
1.1.3 Research gap
Followings are some ideas about the above literature review on domestic
and international studies related to guanrateeing policies on ethnic minorities
in Northwestern region: (i) There have been no studies at PhD degree
working academically and systematically on assuranceing policies for the
access to general education for ethnic minorities;(ii) It is essential to
research and clarify the reality of access to general education (primary and
lower secondary schools) for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in the
period of 2013-2017; This should help to give an evaluation on the on the
assurance for education access for this subject, which was a big concern in
previous studies. (iii) Based on the scientific system of policies for general
education access for ethnic minorities, there should be an exploration into
the application of the theoretical framework to analyze the status and
evaluate assuranceing policies on general education for ethnic minorities
in Northwestern region. This would serve as the basis for futher
recommendations and solutions for managers, which was a great

quite strong impact on the improvement of quality and satisfaction of residents
with primary and lower secondary education. All 4 models revealed a close
relationship between basic evaluation on education quality and satisfaction of
ethnic minorities with education quality of primary and lower secondary
schools.
4.5. Evaluation on factors affecting assurance for education access for
ethnic minorities in Northern mountainous area
4.5.1. Factors related to the State: (i) The signing and issuie of ideology,
roadmaps, strategies by the Communist Party, agreement, international
committment, legislative documents to create legal coridor for general
education access for ethnic minorities in general and that of Northwestern in
particular; (ii) Low quality of policy issuing and limited care about typical
features of location, culture and customs of residents due to new
implementation of factors related to the State policies on education assurance
for ethnic minorities; (iii) Ineffective structure and mechanism of resources
(workforce, physical resource and talent resource) of the Central authorities
on education control in the management and implementation of education
assurance for ethnic minorities through programs with integrated approaches
and objectives for education generalization.
4.5.2. Factors related to local area: Northern mountainous area is complex
with high mountains, deep abyss and inappropriately invested road. In addition,
the climate is harsh with heavy rain, flash flood and lanslide. Living standard is
low due to income mainly from agriculture and aquaculture activities. Although
culture and mental life has improved, they are typically local-based and the main
media means are TV and radio. Therefore, it greatly affects wareness of ethnic
children about schooling.
4.5.3. Factors related to education service supply for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region: (i)- Appropriateness of teaching curriculum for ethnic
children (Vietnamese, ethnic language, culture of ethnic minorities civic
education...); (ii) In parimary and lower secondary schools with ethnic

students as well as boarding and daily boarding ethnic schools, training and
self-training courses for teachers about ethnic culture, suitable teaching methods
with ethnic minority students, especially for the following subjects: literature,
geography, mathematics based on the curriculum of Department of Ethnic
minorities education.
4.5.4. Factors related to ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: Those
like: students’ gender, ethnic groups, culture, religion, mother tounge;
household (economic condition, religion, tradition, income, number of
children, job), relative’s and villages’customs as well as diversity of ethnic


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*) General evaluation on education quality of primary institutions of
Northwestern region based on parents’ feelings: Q22= 2,193 + 0,57*FT1 +
0,532*FT2 +ui;
*) Parents’ satisfaction with education service of primary schools in
Northwestern region: Q23= 1,468+ 0,576 *Q22 +ui
So, results of regression showed that only two elements of sympathy (FT1)
and tangibility (FT3) had an increasing linear relaation with quality of
primary education based on respondents’ feelings and assessment. However,
in terms of policies, it was expected that people in this region should
continuously benefit more from upgraded facilities and completed
coursebooks; the model pointed out an increasing linear relationship between
evaluation of education quality (Q22) and people’s satisfaction with current
education quality (Q23). However, the intercept ò model 3 ứa at 1,468 only.
This meant that the lower limit of people’s satisfaction with primary
education quality was low, fluctuating between levels 1 and 2 of likert scale.

Regarding evaluation of the quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities
with lower secondary education supply:
*) General evaluation on education quality of primary institutions of
Northwestern
region
based
on
parents’
feelings:
Q29=
0,616VT4+0,310VT1 +ui;
*) Parents’ satisfaction with education service of lower secondary
schools in Northwestern region: Q30=0,845+0,765*Q29 +ui
So, regression results of model 4 indicated that there were two
factors of sympathy (VT1) and learning facilities (VT4) had an increasing
relationwith the quality of lower secondary education (Q29) based on
residents’ assessment. Then, in order to improve education quality, ot should
be prioritized to improve learning facilities (if this element changed 1 unit,
Q29 would improve 0,616 unit, whereas the sympathy of teachers and
schools changed 1 unit, Q29 would improve 0,31 unit). However, in terms of
policies, it was expected that people in this region should continuously
benefit more from upgraded facilities and completed coursebooks. Model 5
pointed out an increasing linear relationship between the evaluation of
education quality at lower secondary school (Q29) and satisfaction of
residents with current education supply (Q30). It could be concluded that if
the quality of lower secondary education changed (Q29) 1 unit, the
satisfaction of ethnic people would increase 0,765 unit. Therefore, based on
model 4 on linear regression identified from the researched data in 5 provinces
of Northwestern region, there was an agreement between 2 groups of (i)
sympathy of parents and students; (ii) learning facilities , both of which had a

expection in previous studies; (iv) Those works in the past were lack of the
systemization for different perspectives and solutions to better implement
assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region in the future. These policies for ethnic groups in
Vietnam are still limited in terms of both theoretical and experimental
aspects. Therefore, the thesis on “Policies on assurance for access to
general education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region” in the
upcoming time should be regarded as a significant study.
1.2. Research objectives, scope and subject
1.2.1. Research objectives:
1.2.1.1 Research objectives: This study aimed at systemizing related theories
and evaluating the reality of assuranceing policies for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region in accessing to general in the period of 2013 -2017; this
should help to propose solutions, other polciies on general education access
for ethnic groups in this region towards 2025, provide an orientation towards
2030. Specific objectives are as the followings: (i) Analyzing a literature
review and establishing a framework on assuranceing policies on general
education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern area; (ii) Working on
previous experiences linked with policies on general education access for
ethnic minorities in certain countries in region and worldwide; (iii) Giving
an analysis into status and an evaluation on policies for general education
access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern area in Vietnam in the period of
2013-2017 ; (iv) Focusing on the systemization and assessment on reality and
implementation of general education access for ethnic groups in Northwestern
region in the period of 2013-2017; Describing the context of special policies on
general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region
towards 2025, and orientation towards 2030; (v) Proposing perspectives,
roadmaps and solutions for better implementation of general education
access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region towards 2025, and

orientation towards 2030.
1.2.1.2 Research questions: For the achievement of those research objectives,
the thesis was desgined to answer the following questions: (1) Based on the
literature review and theories on assuranceing policies, what is the access to
general education? What are some lessons learnt from other countries in the
region and worldwide in terms of general education access for ethnic
minorities?; (2) How is the reality of policies on general education access for
ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in Vietnam in the period of 20132017?; (3) How is the systemization and evaluation of the reality and

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implementation of assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region in Vietnam from 2013 to 2017?; (4) What are
recommendations for the completion and enhancement of assuranceing
policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern
region?
1.2.2. Research subject and scope: (i) The subject of this thesis was
assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region; (ii) Research scope: both theories and practices of
assuranceing policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region with 5 selected provinces namely Lào Cai, Điện Biên,
Sơn La, Lai Châu and Hòa Bình for practical evidences; (iii) Duration: the
secondary data was chosen from 2013 to current time, the primary data was
collected through a survey in 05 provinces Lào Cai and Điện Biên, Sơn La,
Lai Châu, Hòa Bình in 2018; (iv) Research content: The thesis concentrated
on policies on general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern
region at primary and lower secondary schools.

The author carried out a survey and passed by 220 sheets of
questioonaire for 220 households having children at primary and lower
secondary schools in 5 provinces of Điện Biên, Lào Cai, Sơn la, Lai Châu
and Hòa Bình. The number of collected responses was 210. The number of
completed sheets for SPSS 22 processing was 187 (Tabachnick and Fidell,
2006).

1.3 Research methods

Policies on
assurance for
general
education for
ethnic minorities
in Northwestern
region
- Basis

- The State
- Local authorities
- Local ethnic
minorities
themselves
in
Northwestern
region

Guarantee
Sympathy
Tangibility

Quality of
general education
service

Satisfaction with
general education
service

Travelling time

1.3.1 Research frame
The thesis established a theoretical frame on special policies on
general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region
Influencing
factors on policies
on assurance for
general education
for ethnic
minorities in
Northwestern
region

Trust
Response

- Objectives
- Subject
- Object
- Contents

-

Specific

sub-

Implementation
results

- Access
- Quality

Performance
Financial support

Diagram 4.1: Model on variables to evaluate the quality of general
education service
4.4.3 Data processing method
Regading model 2, primary data was collected in 11/2018, the author
applied statistical analysis with SPSS 22 to evaluate the satisfaction of
students and their families with the quality of general education service at
different stage of education ladder: primary and lower secondary: Step 1:
determining the scale for variables based on Cronbach's Alpha; Step 2:
analizing EFA towards 5 factors of SERVPERF model to evaluate the quality
of geenral education at each education level; Step 3: Implementing linear
regression for 8 independent variables based on the variable of education
quality; Step 4: Giving final regression conclusion with correlation and
statistical meaning and commenting on regression results related to the
thesis’s objectives.
4.4.4. Regression results

Regarding evaluation of the quality and satisfaction of ethnic minorities
with primary education supply:


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general knowledge education attached with physical and mental education,
multi-ethnic culture preservation, encouragement of the main ethnic
language’s development through teachers and students; (vii) enhanced
policies on human resource for teachers and staff; (viii) promotion of
education socialization in moutainous areas, people’s better awareness and
actions. A large number of local areas have mobilized the participation and
contribution of community; (ix) improved and standardized infrastructure
and teaching and learning facilities.
4.3.2. Drawbacks and reasons
4.3.2.1. Drawbacks of policies on general education access for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region: (i) Research on the instruction, insurance,
adjustment and amendment of policies; (ii) Activities of implementation; (iii)
Unregular investigation and control by Minitries and sectors on programs and
projects related to infrastructure and incorporation in policy instruction
4.3.2.2. Reasons for those drawbacks: Firstly, Northwestern region is located
in the mountainous area with boundary, large scale, dangerous and seperated
geographical feature, difficult transport; harsh climate, low population density
and uneven population distribution: difficult for planning and building schools;
Secondly, regulation on student support in cash. In fact, due to poor educational
background, ethnic culture and customs, a lot of households do not use this sum
of money for learning; Thirdly, unadjusted and inappropriate regulations on
the amount of financial support compared with current cost and inflation.

4.4. Theoretical frame for evaluating the quality and satisfaction of
ethnic minorities in Northwestern region with the supply of general
education service
4.4.1 The selected model for evaluation
Based on the model measuring service quality by Parasuraman 1988, the
author proposed 3 other new elements to survey and test, including time for
travelling from their houses to schools (H6); Academic performance
according to regulation by Ministry of education and training (H7) and
financial support for students besides tuition fee reduction policy (H8).
So, researched elements were: Trust (H1); Response (H2); Guarantee (H3);
Sympathy (H4); Tangible facilities (H5); Time for going to school (H6);
Academic performance (H7); Expense support (H8). All variables were
surveyed and inclusive in 31 questions for households living in Northwestern
region with 5 provinces namely Điên Biên, Lào Cai, Lai Châu, Hào Bình,
Sơn La. In these surveyed households, there were children studying at
primary and lower secondary schools
4.4.2 Data and research sample of the model

1.3.2. Research methods
Firstly, desk research: In addition to qualitative method, this study also
applied quantitative method to analyze, evaluate and propose
recommendations for the quality assurance of general education for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region. Quantitative method helped to clarify the
relationship among factors affecting residents‘ satisfaction with their access
to general education in Northwestern region in Vietnam.
Secondly, ethnographic fieldnotes: In order to employ this method, the
author experienced fieldtrips to explore mental and physical life of ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region.
Thirdly, data collection method: To obtain data for qualitative and
quantitative methods, besides secondary data about the assurance of general

education for ethnic people in Northwestern region, which was collected
from Ministries, departments, sectors of local and central authorities; the
author also conducted a survey with questionnaire and in-depth interview to
gather primary data. ”
Forthly, data processing method: Regarding primary data, the author
used statistical approach with SPSS to compare and assess the satisfaction of
students and their families with their access to general education and its
quality provided by local insitutions.
Fifthly, data analysis method: (i) Classes-based statistical analysis: In
terms of primary data, the author found out classes related to reality of getting
access to and benefits from policies on general education for ethnic
minorities based on criterion of local standards, regional development,
gender, household demography, background knowledge, etc. These criterion
were analyzed with subject groups numbered 1,2,3. The category of classes
helped the author in identifying comparisons and reality of general education
of different surveyed groups within different minorities, local areas,
development, number of poeple in a household and academic knowledge …
(ii) Model-based analysis: In this thesis, model SERVPERF was applied to
evaluate the quality of general education service that ethnic minorities got
involved in and felt. (iii) Regression and tests: One-way analysis of varianceOne-way ANOVA was used to test whether or not there were differences in
evaluation on reality of general education and its quality in 5 provinces
namely Lào Cai, Điện Biên, Sơn La, Lai Châu and Hòa Bình.
1.4 Thesis’s new contributions in terms of academic, theoretical basis and
research methods

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This study provided a scientific systemization of theories related to

policies on general education access assurance for ethnic minorities in regard
of the following aspects: definition, characteristics of ethnic minorities, their
education access; factors affecting education access of ethnic minorities;
perspective on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities
and concept, characteristics, 6 contents and principles of policies on
assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities; factors affecting
policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities;
international experience in similar countries with lessons learnt regarded as
practical basis for recommended solutions.
- Findings and recommendations based on the thesis’s research and
survey
+ The establishment and proposal for 3 theoretical models and
implementation of linear regression based on collected data to assess the
reality of ethnic minorities’ access to general education; identification of
factors affecting quality of general education access of these people and their
satisfaction with general education; the construction of model on factors
affecting policies on genereal education access in Northwestern region based
on the survey with managers being involved in different phases of policy
making process like planning, organization and investigation, control of
policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities.
+ Application of regression model and evaluation of reality related to 6
sub-policies to determine the prioritized order of solutions to improve the
effectiveness and efficiency of policies on assurance for general education
for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region. Specific solutions to general
education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region: those on
enhancement of general education service supply by institutions; those on
empowerment of sponsorship and attraction of ethnic students in ths region;
those on completion of policies on development of Northwestern
infrastructure and recommendations for the Assembly, Government,
Ministries and local authorities.

(i) – policies on fostering propagandization and publicity of laws related to
education; (ii) active involvement of local authorities in supporting and
supervising the assurance of general education for ethnic minorities (policy
bank, micor-financial organziations, NGOs); (iii) local information system
and communication ensuring broad implementation through TV channels,
radio channels and through learning encouragement association to ethnic
households.
4.2. An evaluation on the status of general education access for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region
4.2.1. Evaluation on the assurance for general education foe thnic
minorities in Northwestern region: (i) the status of education access ensures
equality and fairness among ethnic groups without any discrimination; (ii)
there is further improvement in gender equality among ethnic students in
general and ethnic minorities in particular. There is still big gap in education
access in different levels of different ethnic groups.
4.2.2. Evaluation on the status of education access from institutions: (i)
there is an enhancement in transperancy for general education service supply;
(ii) there is an improvement in giving explanation to process of education
access assurance;(iii) there is guarantee for anticipation in education access;
(iv) there is motivation, which gradually contributes to the development of
education access for ethnic students;(v) there is assurance for autonomy in
progress in intitutions.
4.3. Evaluation on the status of general education access for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region
4.3.1. General achievements:
Policies on general education assurance for ethnic minorities in
general and those for residents in Northwestern region in particular in the
period of 2013-2017: (i) policies on learning assistance and living expense
support for students from primary to lower and upper secondary levels;

policies on tuition fee reduction; learning assistance; (ii) living condition
support (meals, residence, transport …) for ethnic minority students; (iii)
policies on beneficiary for social welfare with results in the expansion of
network of institutions, permanent classrooms at all stages of education
ladder; (iv) upgraded infrastructure at permanent and semi-permanent state
for classroom, laboratory and dormintory; expected facilities for teaching and
learning demands; innovated coursebooks, journals and internet-based
information compatible with features of each ethnic group and local area; (v)
improved social fair in education access, especially for ethnic students in
remote areas; (vi) friendly education environment with dynamic activities;

1.5. Thesis structure
The thesis contents was presented in 5 chapters: Chapter 1: Literature
review on policy assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities;
Chapter 2: Theoretical basis for general education access for ethnic
minorities; Chapter 3: Reality of general education access for ethnic
minorities in Northwestern region; Chapter 4: Reality of policies on
assurance for general education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern


20

9

(2010); Sandy Baum (2003); Rosaline (2014) and Nguyễn Đức Vinh (2009);
Sixthly, tradition had a negative impact on YaccessTH with -0,214. This
reflected this study’s hypothesis and matched with regression results of income;
Seventhly, Radio (the rate of the rate of ethnic households listening to Voice of
Vietnam, or local television) negatively affected YaccessTH and
YaccessTHCS with -0,086 and -0,221. This was an unexpected result based

on literature review; Eighthly, both DisTH and DisTHCS had positive impact
on YaccessTH and YaccessTHCS with 0,447 and 1,082. So, the regression
results were contrastive to the theoretical model

region; Chapter 5: Orientation and solutions to the access of general
education for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region.
CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL BASIS FOR POLICIES ON
ASSURANCE FOR GEENRAL EDUCATION
FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES
2.1. General education access for ethnic minorities
2.1.1 Concept, characteristics of ethnic minorities
2.1.1.1 Concept of ethnic minorities: Ethnic minorities are groups of people
with limited number and disadvantaged position in Vietnam, who have
typical characteristics of racial, regional and linguistic aspects which make
these people different from the majority ones. They have mutual awareness
and clear motivation in utilizing group spirit to survive and achieve their aims
of equality with the majority in terms of both legislative and practical areas.
2.1.1.2. Basic characteristics of ethnic minorities: (i) limited number in
comparison with the majority of people in the same country; (ii)
disadvantaged position in the society represented by potential; (iii) unique
features of culture based on racial, ethnic, linguistic identities, customs and
conventions; (iv) awareness about culture preservation.
2.1.2 General education access for ethnic minorities
2.1.2.1 The role of education for ethnic minorities: All nations and
international organizations always state that education provision for
ethnic minorities is one of prioritized strategies and policies, investment
into education is investment for development; education is regarded as
objective as well as motivation for socio-economic development
2.1.2.2 Definition and features of general education access for ethnic
minorities: this refers to the state’s supply of sufficient education service in

response to learning demand of local people, the state’s encouragement for
ethnic minorities to go to school in order to achieve its objectives of general
education for primary and lower secondary background.
2.1.2.3 Features of general education access for ethnic minorities: Complete
establishment of institutions in mountainous provinces to meet learning
demand of people in school age; appropriate institutions and curriculums for
typical characteristics of ethnic minorities in the region; assurance for general
education access in mountainous region in the context of hindrances from
natural conditions, culture, language, customs and socio-economy.
2.1.2.4 Neccessity for general education access assurance for ethnic
minorities: This means the state ensures basic rights for its people so that they
can integrate and catch up with socio-economic development of the country.

CHAPTER 4: REALITY OF POLICIES ON GENERAL
EDUCATION ACCESS ASSURANCE FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES
IN NORTHWESTERN REGION
4.1 The status of policies on general education access assurance for
ethnic minorities in Northwestern region
4.1.1. Policies on school infrastructure investment: This refers to upgrading
facilities for teaching and learning purposes, including school, classroom,
furniture, library, playing ground, physical room, dormintory, lighting
system,...
4.1.2. Policies on finance for teachers at institutions: (i) This ensures
mechanism for managers, teachers who are ethnic; (ii) This guarantees
complete payment for teachers’ experience allowance
4.1.3. Policies on teacher resource and manager development
(i) Local management authorities of education and institutions always strictly
concentrate, plan and manage the quality and quantity of teaching staff; (ii)
There are training courses for teachers, staff and managers; (iii) There should
be mechanism with special attention to staff who are ethnic; (iv) There is an

improvement in the process of testing, evaluating and training schemes for
education staff.
4.1.4. Policies on finance for students: (i) It is essential to completely
implement financial mechanism for students, which ensures all conditions for
their living and learning requirements in boarding schools as well as
improvement for education quality; (ii) There are policies on tuition reduction
and scholarship;
4.1.5. Policies on social infrastructure development in mountainous area
(i) – Local infrastructure (road system, bridges, electricity ..) helps students to go
to school more conveniently; (ii) Telecommunication system, internet helps
students to access to and apply networks in their studies.
4.1.6. Policies on propagandizing general education

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19

This contributes to their living stability and comprehensive development for
mountainous and remote areas.
2.1.3 Factors affecting the assurance of general education access for ethnic
minorities
2.1.3.1 Factors from state policies: they play an important role and have
parallel influence on general education access of ethnic minorities.
2.1.3.2 Factors from local areas: they play an important role and have
parallel influence on general education access of ethnic minorities.
2.1.3.3 Factors from education supplying system (public and private
schools): they play an important role and have parallel influence on general
education access of ethnic minorities. These include: (i) facilities serving
teaching and learning needs; (ii) facilities related to teaching and learning
process; (iii) Quality, academic expertise, training courses and financial

polciies for teachers and school managers; (iii) Appropriateness between
teaching curriculum and learning reality of students from ethnic minorities.
2.2. Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic
minorities
2.2.1 Definition and objectives of policy assurance for general education
access for ethnic minorities: this refers to all perspectives, solutions and tools
that the State uses to put an impact on subjects related to the assurance for general
education access for ethnic minorities. This aims to deal with problems of
policies and the implementation of objectives for the assurance of general
education access under the orientation of national targets.
2.2.2 Principles of policies on assurance for general education access for
ethnic minorities: (i) Legislation; (ii) Administration; (iii) Fairness; (iv)
Equality; (v) Effectiveness and efficiency.
2.2.3 Policies on assurance for general education access for ethnic
minorities:
2.2.3.1 Classification of policies on assurance for general education access
for ethnic minorities: (i) Based on policy issuing levels; (ii) Based on policy
contents
2.2.3.2 Contents of policies on assurance for general education access for
ethnic minorities:

the rate of ethnic households doing -/+
traditional handicraft (%)
9
TV
the rate of ethnic households watching +
Vietnam television or local television (%)
10
Radio
the rate of ethnic households listening to +

Voice of Vietnam, or local television (%)
11
WomenRW
the rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old +
being literate (%)
12
Laber15
the percentage of trained ethnic people +
having jobs from15 years old (%)
Source: Author’s self-collection based on previous publications
Based on the survey in 2015, results of analysis and linear regression for
factors affecting primary education access: YaccessTH = 79,924 0,003*Income +0,447*DisTH + 2,910*Service -0,214*Tradition +
0,170*TV -0,086*Radio+0,396* Laber15 + ui (2)
Results of analysis and linear regression for factors affecting lower
secondary education access: YaccessTHCS = 26,623 +1,082*DisTHCS +
7,039*Service + 0,310*Tradition + 0,418*TV -0,221*Radio+ 0,170*
WomenRW + 1,064* Laber15 + ui (3)
Results of regression analysis showed that education access for ethnic
children through primary education access (YaccessTH) and lower
secondary education access (YaccessTHCS) was affected by certain
important factors, including: Firstly, the service (the rate of ethnic households
joining tourism and service) had a positive impact on YaccessTHCS and
YaccessTH with correlation of 2,910 and 7,039. Obviously, this result was
compatibale with studies by Phạm Thị Mộng Hoa, Lâm Thị Mai Lan, (1999);
Secondly, communication (the rate of ethnic households watching Vietnam
television or local television) also positively affected YaccessTHand
YaccessTHCS with correlation of 0,170 and 0,418. This result was compatible
with that by Thanh Tâm (2016); Thirdly, Laber15 (the percentage of trained
ethnic people having jobs from15 years old) had a positive impact on
YaccessTH and YaccessTHCS, with correlation of 0,396 and 1,064. The

regression results matched with those in theories; Forthly, WomenRW (the
rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old being literate) passively affected
YaccessTHCS with 0,17. However, this factor did have statistical meaning
for YaccessTH. This confirmed previous studies (Indu Bhushan et. al, 2001;
Võ Thành Sơn et. al, 2001; Nguyễn Đức Vinh, 2009); Fifthly, income
(income/person/household) negatively affected YaccessTH with -0,003. This
result was contrasted to that by Trần Quý Long (2014); Nguyễn Quốc Nghị
8

Tradition


18

11

Yaccess = β0 + β1 Income + β2 TotalHous + β3 UseDien - β4 DisTH + β5
Service + β6Tradition + β7 TV + β8 Radio+ β9 WomenRW + β10 Laber15 + ui
(1)
Dependent variables: Yaccess measured by Age specific enrolment
rate (ASER) (%).
Independent variables: Income, the rate of ethnic households with permanent
and semi-permanent housing ( TotalHous), the rate of ethnic households using
electricity (UseDien), average distance from house to schools (DisTH), the rate
of ethnic households joining tourism and service (Service Tradition), the rate of
ethnic households doing traditional handicraft (Tradition ), the rate of ethnic
households listening to Voice of Vietnam, Vietnam television or local television
(TV, Radio), the rate of ethnic girls from 15 years old being literate
(WomenRW), the percentage of trained ethnic people having jobs from15 years
old (Laber15).

Table 3.1: Variables of linear regression with factors affecting
education access

No

1

Variables

YaccessTH
YaccessTHCS

2

Income

3

TotalHous

4

UseDien

5

DisTH

6

DisTHCS

7

Service

Contents

Age specific enrolment (ASER) (%)

income/person/household
(thousand
VND)
the rate of ethnic households with
permanent and semi-permanent housing

The trend of
relationship
between
independent
and
dependent
variables
Dependent
variables
Independent
variables
+/+

(%)

the rate of ethnic households using
electricity (%)
average distance from house to primary
schools (km)
average distance from house to lower
secondary schools (km)
the rate of ethnic households joining
tourism and service (%)

+
-

Supply of policies on
assurance for general
education access for ethnic
minorities

Policies on assurance for general
education access for ethnic minorities
- Primary education
- Lower secondary education

Policies on assurance for general
education access for ethnic minorities
- Aims
- Beneficial subject
- Contents
- Assurance for human resource of
implementation

Demand for
policies on
assurance for
general education
access for ethnic
minorities

Scale, features and demand
for education of ethnic
minorities
- Scale and demand or
education
- Features (age, background,
cultural customs, language,
gender, tyoe of ethnic group,
family)

Policy implementation and provision
of general education
- Arrangement of State’s mechanism
for policy implementation
- Capacity of service supply linked with
general education (system, scale, type..)
- Service support agencies (social
organizations, NGOs, macro-finance…)
- Service quality assurance and control
Evaluation on policies on assurance for general education access for
ethnic minorities
- Criterion on capacity of education provision; Criterion on quality of

education provision assurance ;
- Criterion on efficiency of education assurance

a. Policies on school facility investment: (i) Mobilizing all physical sources
from the State and society to construct facilities for institutions; (ii) Making
the supply of policies on assurance for general education access compatible
with the demand of general education access of ethnic students.
b. Policies on finance for teachers: (i) Ensuring added income for teachers,
staff and managers of instutions who are ethnic minorties to promote and
improve the quality of education; (ii) Building up a financial mechanism for
the allocation of the budget for salary and suitable allowanced related to the
salary.
c. Policies on human resource development for teachers and managers: (i)
Improving and enhancing expertise and skills for staff, teachers for ethnic
minorities; (ii) Planning quality and quantity of recruited teachers and staff.

+/-

12

17

d. Policies on students’ finance: (i) Supporting or decreasing tuition fee
burdern for students and their families; (ii) Setting up policies on fee
regulating method, tool and approach...
e. Policies on social infrastructure development in ethnic minorities regions:
(i) Planning and constructing infrastructure of road and communication; (ii)
Making policies on social infrastructure development in mountainous ares
due to their role in affecting the assurance for general education access of
ethnic minorities.

f. Policies on propagandizing general education to ethnic minorities in
mountainous areas: (i) Propagandizing the State’s policies; (ii) Setting up
community fund through communication channels (radio, TV, newspaper), …
2.2.4. Factors affecting policies on assurance for general education access
for ethnic minorities
2.2.4.1. Factors related to policy issuing: (i) Effective and scientific policy
issuing process;(ii) Qualified staff in policy issuing process; (iii) Tools, analytic
techniques, evaluation and assistance for policy issuing
2.2.4.2. Factors related to authorities and institutions in policy
implementation: the effectiveness depends on policy implementation from
central to local level.
2.2.4.3. Factors related to students: Students and families make direct decision
in accessing to general education in mountainous areas.
2.2.4.4. Factors related to natural conditions and social infrastructure: these
put an impact on the effectiveness of policy implementation
2.3. International experience in policies on assurance for general
education access for ethnic minorities and lessons learnt for the
Northwestern region in Vietnam
2.3.1. Experience from China: this is a multi-ethnic country with 56 ethnic
groups, in which the Hán people accounted for more than 90% of the
population and the rest 55 groups were considered as minorities (Rongxing
Guo, 2016). However, currently, there are still numerous challenges in the
assurance for general education for these people, including (i) income
obstacle; (ii) linguistic obstacle; (iii) religious and cultural obstacle; (iv)
obstacle linked with expected knowledge of students and parents; (v)
opportunity cost obstacle. Since 1949, the People’s Republic of China
announced specific policies on education generalization for ethnic minorities.
In particular: (i) regulations on law related to general education for ethnic
minorities; (ii) state’s policies on assurance of general education. China
established a system of institutes and research centers at central and local levels

27 upper secondary schools) there were 225 standard ones, accounting for
51,61%.
3.3.2. Status of general education access for ethnic students in Điện Biên:
The status of general education assurance for ethnic students up to
primary level: The number of ethnic students in general was rather stable and
increased slightly in the period. The number of students at lower secondary
schools accounted for about 8% of provincial population equal to the average
of 4036 students/ year in this period. The number of ethnic students on
average was 29625 studenst/year, accounting for an average of 73,64%. The
rate of girls and ethnic girls was quite high, equal to 47,94% and 48,48%.
Despite its decrease compared with primary level, the number of girls was
still at high rate, ensuring gender equality in general education from lower to
upper secondary schools.
The number of lower secondary students accessing to general
education was stable and increased slightly through the period of 2013 2017. The number of students in general and that of ethnic ones in particular
increased every year, which was 2,32% and 2,02% respectively. The number
of ethnic girls increased at an average number of 2,56%, which was higher
than the number of girl students in general.
Based on statistics until 10/2016, in Điện Biên, there were 7.325
classrooms in total. In particular, there were 4.170 permanent rooms, accounting
for 56,9%, 1.633 semi-permanent ones, accounting for 22,3%, 1.522 temporary
ones, accounting for 20,8%; 880 rooms for specific purposes (682 permanent
rooms, equal to 77,5%, 159 semi-permanent rooms, equal to 18,1%, 39 temporary
ones, equal to 4,4%; 2.476 rooms for public service, 813 permanenet rooms, equal
to 32,8%, 951 semi-permanent ones, equal to 38,4%, 712 temporary ones, equal
to 28,8%; 2.946 boarding rooms with 1.408 permanenet ones, equal to 47,8%,
1.032 semi-permanent ones, equal to 35%, 506 temporary ones, equal to 17,2%.
73 rooms for language learning at primary and lower secondary schools.
3.4. Theoretical frame for analysis and experiment about factors

affecting general education access of ethnic students: In order to set up the
basis for proposing solutions, the thesis created a theoretical frame to analyze
factors affecting the access to general education of ethnic students. Then, the
study used the surveyed data with ethnic households, which was jointly carried
out by Ethnic committee and General statistics office in 2015. The proposed
model of factors affecting the access to general education of ethnic children in
Vietnam was:


16

13

boundaries: Điện Biên has boundary with Laos, Lào Cai is next to China.
Therefore, this thesis conducted a survey on general education access for ethnic
minorities in Lào Cai and Điện Biên.

to provide the most comprehensive support for the development of regions with
ethnic minorities.
2.3.2. Experience from other countries in ASEAN: other countries in Asean
like Laos, Thailan and Cambodia put an emphasis on general education for
mountainous people based on their implementation of International
commitment to education for everyone and commitment to millennium
objectives. Contents of policies that contributed to the success of general
education were: assurance for the state budget on education in general and
primary school in particular; active education contribution from ODA and
non-official source for ethnic minorities; innovation in decentralization of
primary education management in mountainous areas and encouragement of
local people participation in primary education development (Matthew V.
Coleman ,2012)

2.3.3. Experience from Latin American countries: A number of countries
in Latin America built up programs providing financial support in cash
attached with their conditions for ethnic minorities and disadvantaged people
to ensure general education supply. Despite certain differences, these
programs agreed on direct funding through cash for households and
providers’ conditions of particpants’ enrolling in all stages of general
education, involving in healthcare prevention schemes for young children
and working towards the poor. These programs aimed at reducing poor
consumption and improving results of human development. Also, different
programs for women focused on fostering their role in families.
2.3.4. Lessons learnt for Northwestern region in Vietnam: (i) The state
government should pay attention to supplying general education servcice for
residents in this area through different policies such as integrating regulations
of general education supply into official laws and announcing frame for free
schooling. In addition, it might be possible to provide cash support and
physical assistance to encourage or ask students to go to school (ii) The
Government should make plans and implement investment policies on local
infrastructure to reduce difficulties and geographical obstacles for students to
go to school in a convenient basis. The government should ennhance the
priority on state budget and ODA resources for infrastructure of road
construction and electricity supply for ethnic minorities; (iii) The government
should mobilize resources for the investment in education institutions in areas
with ethnic minorities, especially ethnic boarding schools and day-boarding
ones; (iv) The government should encourage different socio-economic
sectors to invest in private schools and participate in supplying general
education service for students, which is based on state funding. Also, the

3.3.1. Status of assurance for general education for ethnic students in Lào
Cai : education in Lào Cai receives the most attention and has experienced
most developments compared with other provinces in the region. Based on

statistics in academic year 2016-2017, Lào Cai had 658 institutions with
1.458 schools and 196.792 students. In particular, at kindergarten, there were
200 schools, 2.353 groups/classes; at primary level, there were 223 schools
(of which, there were 42 ethnic boarding schools); at lower secondary level, there
were 189 schools (of which there were 78 ethnic boarding schools); at upper
secondary level, there were 36 schools (of which, there were 9 ethnic boarding
schools).
The status of general education assurance for ethnic minorities at
primary school: (i) Assurance of class number at primary school in the period
of 2013-2017, the average number was 3320 classes, fluctuating around 3285
classes (2014-2015) to 3345 (2016-2017); Assurance of stable number of
primary students, which tended to slightly increase. The number of students
at primary schools accounted for 11% provincial population and witnessed
yearly increase of nearly 2.2% ; (iii) High number of ethnic students in this
period , of which the average number was 46189 students /year, equal to 70,75%
total number of annual students; (iv) Improvement of gender equality in general
education for primary students reprensted by the rate of girls and ethnic girls at
schools;
The status of assurance for education access for ethnic students up
to lower secondary level: (i) The number of students at lower secondary
schools accounted for 6% total provincial population, equal to an a verage of
45.189 students/year in this period; (ii) the rate of students at lower secondary
school accessing to education was stable and increased slightly during the
period; (iii) The annual average rate of ethnic students was 32880
students/year, accounting for an average of 72,77%. The number of girls and
ethnic girls was rather high, equal to 46,95% and 46,54%. The quality of
facilities and conditions were gradually improved, which ensured national
standard. Especially, in regard of ethnic boarding and daily boarding schools,
there were 48 standardized ones out of 122 schools, accounting for 36,07%.
In terms of general schools, the number of standard school was greater,

among 436 schools, (231 primary schools, 178 lower secondary schools and

14

15

governement should foster its supervisory on projects providing support by
cash for students; (v) It should encourage experts from universities,
academies and institutes to propose to policy makers and research suitable
policies for ethnic minorities
CHAPTER 3:
REALITY OF GENERAL EDUCATION ACCESS
FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES
3.1 Socio-economic conditions for ethnic minorities in Northwestern
region:
Northwestern region is the western mountainous area in the north of
Vietnam, which has boundaries between Vietnam and Laos as well as China.
This region includes ethnic minorities in 5 provinces namely Sơn La, Điện
Biên, Lai Châu, Hòa Bình, Lào Cai. The mutual characteristics of
Northwestern region are its geographical feature with dangerous and high
mountains, complicated separated area with decentralized residents, difficult
transport; harsh weather with great variations; multi-ethnic population with
different minorities, underdeveloped economy, numerous poor villages and
communes according to the state standards, difficult living standard.
3.2 The status of general education access for ethnic minorities in
Northwestern region:
General education for ethnic minorities nationwide in general and
Northwestern region in particular continues to experience development in
terms of quality and quantity at primary level. However, it tends to decrease
dramatically at lower secondary level and remains low at upper secondary

level. In specific: the number of ethnic students getting access to primary
school accounts for 17,5% of nationwide students, that number for lower
secondary school is 16% of total nationwide students and 12,2% for upper
secondary school of nationwide students. Noticeably, the number of students
having chance to access to ethnic boarding schools makes up nearly 8% of total
ethnic students at primary and lower secondary schools nationwide.
General education access for ethnic minorities in Northwestern region in
2015: (i) the average age for schooling was 71,30 %. However, there was a
big gap in dispersion of different ethnic groups (deviation was 5,97%). In
particular, the lowest access rate was 59,9% (Lô Lô ethnic), the highest
number was 80,4% (Lào ethnic); (ii) the average rate of primary education
for children at school age was the highest in the education ladder with 90,25%
and the dispersion was 4,26% (deviation), reflecting fairness for different
minorities at primary level. Furthermore, the lowest access rate was 76,9%
(Lô Lô ethnic) and the highest one was 97% (Lào ethnic); (iii) The rate of

students continuing education at the right school age at lower secondary
level declined dramatically with 74,26% on average (16,0% decrease
compared with primary stage). The median was 73,8% higher than the
average mean and the dispersion was quite high at 8,9 % (deviation),
which showed differences in lower secondary access for different ethnic
groups.
3.3 An analysis into the assurance for general education for ethnic
minorities in two typical provinces namely Lào Cai and Điện Biên in
Northwestern region

Đơn vị: %

Northwestern region is the western mountainous area in the north of Vietnam,
which has mutual boundaries with Lào and China; here, the population is

limited and skilled workers are weak, this are also has numerous ethnic
minorities with low number of residents. This area has the highest rate of
poor households in the country. In particular:

Lào
Cai
100
Yên
90 78.47
Bái
74.76
80 72.09
Điện
67.65
66.27
64.17
62.56 60.98
62.40
61.82
70
60.86 56.90 60.76
Biên
53.77 50.26
52.92
52.83 49.94
51.07
60
50.88
49.25 51.41
47.25 47.68

50
40.00
37.50
34.84 35.20 35.60
34.60
33.19 36.60
32.90
40
29.70 26.40
26.80
26.50
26.10
25.30
25.20
24.00
23.90
23.50
22.10
21.40
21.40
21.30
30
20.35
19.65 23.60
20
10
0
1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017

Diagram 3.5: Poverty rate in Northwestern provinces in the period of

1993-2017
In the whole period of 1993-2017, the rate of poor household in Lào Cai was the
lowest with 39,3%; that number in Điện Biên in the period of 2016-2017 was
53,4% and 50,2%, which were the highest in the country. The average poor rate
natiowide in 2016 was 8,23% and in 2017 was 5,35% . Especially, these two
provinces of Điện Biên and Lào Cai are the key of the region due to their