Hiện tượng song ngữ trong văn học trung đại việt nam tt tiếng anh

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

NONG VAN NGOAN

BILINGUALISM
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
Specialty: Vietnamese Literature
Code: 9220121

SUMMARY OF THESIS
OF PhD IN LITERATURE

HANOI - 2019


The thesis is completed at Hanoi National University of Education

Scientific Advisors:
1. Prof./Dr. LA NHAM THIN
2. Dr. NGUYEN MINH HOAT

Review 1: Assoc.Prof.Dr NGUYEN PHAM HUNG
Review 2: Assoc.Prof.Dr NGUYEN THI CHIEN
Review 3: Assoc.Prof.Dr DUONG TUAN ANH

The thesis will be defensed at the University Level Thesis Assessment
Council of Hanoi National University of Education
At … 00’ date … moth … year 2019

The thesis can be searched at:

- Hanoi National University of Education Library
- Vietnam National Library


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PREAMBLE
1. Reason for choosing the topic
1.1. Scientifically
Bilingualism is a quite common phenomenon in medieval literature
of many countries, the East as well as the West. In the East, countries like
Korea, North Korea and Japan, along with use of native languages,
Chinese are used in literary writing. In western countries such as Britain,
France, Italy, and Germany, in medieval literature, Latin language is used
in parallel with native language. The phenomenon of bilingualism made up
the distinctive feature of Vietnamese medieval literature - a writing literary
section consisting of two literary elements of Chinese character and Nom
character literature
Studying the phenomenon of bilingualism is one of the great
characteristics of Vietnamese literature. From the phenomenon of
bilingualism, we can understand more deeply the nature and development
rules of Vietnamese medieval literature from literary point of view,
aesthetic point of view to artistic language, styles, etc
Many authors of Vietnamese medieval literature, including many
well-known names, have written in both Chinese and Nom characters such
as Tran Nhan Tong, Nguyen Trai, Le Thanh Tong, Nguyen Binh Khiem,
Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat, Nguyen Khuyen ... Through the phenomenon of
bilingualism, we can understand more deeply the authors, works of the
same position and their contribution to the national literature
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature

is a typical phenomenon of medieval literature, both universal and
international. In the context of regional literature, such as Korea / North
Korea and Japan, which were influenced by Chinese culture in the Middle
Age or in the history of Western literature from the fall of the Western
Roman Empire to the pre-Renaissance period, the phenomenon of
bilingualism in literature also existed. Thus, the thesis contributes an
insight into the literature of Vietnamese medieval literature in the regional
and international literature community.


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1.2. Practically
This topic has practical implications for the study and teaching of
Vietnamese literature in general as the characteristics and nature of
literature, type and language problems of Vietnamese medieval literature
as well as major authors in bilingual schools, universities and colleges.
2. Purposes and research tasks
2.1. Research purposes
The thesis "The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature" follows one of the current popular research
directions: interdisciplinary research. The thesis is done with the purpose
of studying the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese literature from
the tenth century to the end of the nineteenth century. On the other
Chinesed, through the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature, the thesis enriches certain insights about the
relationship between the phenomenon of bilingualism and writing forces,
type as well as language in Vietnamese medieval literature and
phenomenon of bilingualism in some regional countries.
2.2. Research duties

To achieve the above research purposes, the thesis sets out the
following tasks:
- To introduce concepts of bilingualism, phenomenon of bilingualism
in literature. Clarify the implications of these concepts and terms and see
them as key tools in the survey and research process.
- To apply concepts, terms of bilingualism, bilingual form and
phenomenon of bilingualism in the study of the development process of
Vietnamese medieval literature, the phenomenon of bilingualism-related
characteristics and nature of literature.
- To study historical, social, cultural, literary backgrounds that forms
the phenomenon of bilingualism
- To study the characteristics, nature and process of the phenomenon
of bilingualism in the national literature history, comparing with the
phenomenon of bilingualism in the medieval literature of some countries
such as Korea / North Korea, Japan..


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Particularly, attention should be paid to the issues related to the
phenomenon of bilingualism with authors (especially typical bilingual
authors), types and literary languages in Vietnamese medieval literature.
3. Research subject and scope of research
3.1. Research subject
The subject of the thesis is the formation and development history of
Chinese character literature and Nom character literature components in
Vietnamese medieval literature from the tenth century to the end of the
nineteenth century.
The more specific research subjects of the thesis are:
- Authors of the phenomenon of bilingualism

- Works, types of the phenomenon of bilingualism
- Language of the phenomenon of bilingualism
3.2. Research scope
3.2.1. Documentation scope
We mainly use the translated Chinese characters, transcribed Nom
texts of typical bilingual authors in Vietnamese literature such as Nguyen
Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat and Nguyen Khuyen.
In addition, many works in both functional and literary types have been
explored and studied to further clarify nature of the phenomenon of
bilingualism.
3.2.2. Scientific scope
The scientific scope of the thesis topic includes: Theoretical
background of the bilingualism; Characteristics, nature; development of
bilingualism in Vietnamese literature. The phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature in the context of regional literature; Typical
authors composing in bilingual language; Phenomenon of bilingualism with
literary types and languages
4. Research Methods:
The thesis uses the following main research methods:
4.1. Historical Literature Research Method:
The historical literature research method approaches the research
problem of the thesis as Vietnamese medieval literature history. The


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phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature was a socialhistorical phenomenon. It came from many causes, but mainly from
historical reasons: the domination of Chinese feudal dynasties, the inevitable
rule when "young literature" was influenced by the "old literature"; national
awareness in the field of culture and literature; the need for cultural

development and the construction of the feudal state apparatus. Historical
method is used to analyze historical elements and their influence on the
formation of bilingualism in literature over time.
4.2. Interdisciplinary Research Method (Literature - Language Culture - Social Studies)
Today, literary scholars clearly see that: literary research can not be
separated from its relationship with culture. Moreover, the cultural
context of literary world has a certain difference with our present culture.
Literary research can not be separated from language - material elements
of literary works. For example, when referring to "bilingualism," people
often think of a sociological or linguistic phenomenon. "Bilingualism" in
literature is closely related to social bilingualism, and bilingual literary
compositions also express the linguistic, phonetic, and vocabulary
elements of linguistics. It is necessary to have an understanding of
bilingual and linguistic studies if one wants to understand bilingualism
more deeply in literature.
4.3. Literary Comparison Research Method
This is an indispensable method when implementing the topic. When
mentioning to literary comparison, we should not understand it as
phenomenon comparison in literature, but rather as the comparison
between one literature background to one or more other literature
backgrounds or comparison of phenomena of other literary backgrounds.
The phenomenon of bilingualism in the medieval literature is the use of
both Chinese and Vietnamese in composition. By comparison method, we
can see the individual characteristics of each Chinese and Nom character
literature, on the basis of which find the influence, interference of the twolanguage in the author's works as Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem,
Nguyen Du, Nguyen Khuyen ...


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4.4. Prosody Research Method
In the study of Vietnamese medieval literature, there have been quite
a number of history literary works, there have been a number of works that
have gone into a number of types and authors approached in terms of
prosody including literary types, specific aspects, some types of prosody
with human notion, world conception and some artistic methods.
Bilingualism in literature manifests itself in many ways. The intensity of
bilingualism also varies in each type (for example, political commentary
literature is less influenced by the Vietnamese language Chinese the Tang
prosody poetry). It is necessary to study prosody in order to see the
specific characteristics of each type.
4.5. Typological Methodology
Type (English: typological originates from type or typé in French) is
the concept of a collection of phenomena which share some basic
characteristics. Type-based research does not simply enumerate, describe
the external similarities of literary phenomenon. Much more important is
to find out the rules of similarities. This method is used in the study of the
type of bilingual author and the type of categories viewed from the
phenomenon of bilingualism.
5. New contributions of the thesis
- Pointed out the historical, social, cultural, literary, linguistic and
aesthetic premises of the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature;
- Generalize characteristics and development of phenomenon of
bilingualism;
- Study the problem of bilingual author in Vietnamese medieval
literature;
- Generalize the development and expression of the phenomenon of
bilingualism from overview of type and language
6. Structure of the thesis

Apart from the Introduction, Conclusion, References and Appendix,
the thesis consists of four chapters:
Chapter 1: Overview of research and theoretical basis of the topic


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Chapter 2: General problems of the phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese Medieval Literature
Chapter 3: Types of bilingual author in Vietnamese literature
Chapter 4: Some problems of type and language from overview of
the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese Medieval Literature
Chapter 1
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
AND SOME PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE THESIS
1.1. CONCEPT OF THE PHENOMENOM OF BILINGUALISM
1.1.1. Concept of bilingualism
In this section, we cite linguists' definitions of typical bilingual
concepts in some popular linguistic materials such as the linguistic term
dictionary of Diep Quang Ban or the Vietnamese dictionary of Nguyen
Nhu Y and the linguistic term dictionary explaining of this author on of
bilingualism. The Vietnamese Dictionary, edited by Hoang Phe, as well as
Hoang Quoc’s doctoral thesis on Linguistics, also mentioned to the
concept of bilingualism
Those are definitions of the phenomenon of bilingualism at the most
general level, so called as social bilingualism. But now bilingualism is not
just a social phenomenon, but a psychological phenomenon, because
psychology affects the formation of different language systems in each
individual. In the field of language, this phenomenon has been studied in
many aspects such as historical linguistics, social linguistics, linguistic

psychology, linguistic neuroscience and linguistic pedagogy. Bilingualism
in literature is a part of social – linguistic sociology - studying impact of
bilingualism on culture, society and the preservation of national identity.
The provision of definitions in general grade will give a broader
perspective before going into a narrower sense. We are referring here to
the concept of bilingualism in literature, more specifically, in Vietnamese
medieval literature


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1.1.2. Bilingualism in literature
In this section, we overview concepts of "the phenomenon of
bilingualism" in both broad and narrow meanings according to the
conceptions of researchers Dinh Thi Khang, Tran Nho Thin and Tran Dinh Su.
In conclusion, we think that the bilingualism in literatures, in essence
as the coexistence of two kinds of language, is understood as a literary
phenomenon that uses two types of characters and combines elements of
culture, literature, language arisen during linguistic contact between two
countries. In the Middle Age, the Chinese and Vietnamese contact made up
the bilingualism in literature with the two corresponding scripts of Chinese
and Nom characters. We do not identify "bilingualism" and
"multilingualism" as some of the above interpretations, because it is difficult
to distinguish "bilingualism" in medieval literature with Chinese, Vietnamese
and the "multilingualism" in modern literature (the second half of the
nineteenth century of the early twentieth century) with the interference of
three types of language: Chinese, Vietnamese and French.
Thus, it can be understood that the phenomenon of bilingualism in
literature is the phenomenon of a literature which is simultaneously
composed in two languages - indigenous language and foreign country,

other ethnic group acquired language. With Vietnamese medieval
literature, the bilingual phenomenon expressed in literature at the same
time was composed in both Chinese and Nom characters.
1.2. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese literature has been
mentioned in several studies. However, there is no intensive research on
this subject. It can be seen that some of the following research topics refer
to bilingualism related to the topic:
1.2.1. Studying characteristics of Vietnamese medieval literature
on the phenomenon of bilingualism
In this section, we both review and analyze relevance of the studies
on the characteristics of Vietnamese medieval literature to the
phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature. Typical
works such as historical Vietnamese literature by Duong Quang Ham;


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textbooks on Vietnamese medieval literature by Dinh Gia Khanh and
Nguyen Loc; studies of Tran Dinh Su, Nguyen Dang Na, Tran Dinh Huou,
Bui Duy Tan, La Nham Thin, Tran Nho Thin and some other authors. It
can be seen that the Vietnamese medieval literary researchers above all
affirmed the existence of a line of literature written in the borrowed
language, Chinese characters and another literary line written in the ethnic
language (Vietnamese/Nom) in Vietnamese medieval literature or in other
words, either directly or indirectly acknowledged the existence of bilingual
phenomena in written literature from the 10th century to the end of the
nineteenth century in our country..
1.2.2. Studying Vietnamese medieval literature prosody with
reference to bilingualism

Here, we analyze the relevant points in the work of researchers such
as Phan Ngoc, Tran Dinh Su, Tran Dinh Huou, Hoang Huu Yen, La Nham
Thin and some other researchers when studying problems of prosody,
linguistic and type which also mention the phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature.
1.2.3. Studying authors writing in bilingual language
In this section, the author assesses research works on authors such as
Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du, Cao Ba Quat and Nguyen
Khuyen that mentioned the phenomenon of bilingualism. These works
mentioned more or less the thesis content. We acquire and inherit works of
Nguyen Loc, Dinh Gia Khanh, Tran Nho Thin, Hoang Huu Yen, La Nham
Thin, Bien Minh Dien, Tao Trang, Nguyen Thuy Hong, Tran Thi Anh and
some other researchers so that "The phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature" is studied in a more complete and
systematic manner.
1.2.4. Study and comparison of Vietnamese medieval literature with
literature of countries in Chinese character cultural region in the Middle Age
Here, we review the research works that mentioned the phenomenon
of bilingualism by Doan Le Giang with the article Medieval period in the
literature of countries in the Chinese Chinese culture area or the
Historical Literature of Korea by Ko Mi Sook, Jung Min and Jung Byung


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Sun (translated by Jeon Hye Kyung and Ly Xuan Chung); Nguyen Nam
Tran with Overview of Japanese Literary History.
From these works, we see that the studies on the comparison between
Vietnamese medieval literature and the literature of countries affected by
the Chinese culture area show some similarities, that is the existence of the

phenomenon of bilingualism and the phenomenon of bilingualism of
medieval literature in these countries as well as in Vietnam were both
bilingual inequalities which existed until the Minh Tri Restoration (p.15).
Thus, by reviewing the research works of the authors Doan Le Giang,
Phan Thi Thu Hien, Ko Mi Sook, Jung Min and Jung Byung Sun, Nguyen
Nam Tran and some other researchers, we find that, the studies comparing
Vietnamese medieval literature with literature of countries affected by the
Chinese culture area show some similarities, that is the existence of the
phenomenon of bilingualism and the phenomenon of bilingualism of
medieval literature in these countries as well as in Vietnam were both
bilingual inequalities
The specialized studies on phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature were not numerous, sometimes limited within the narrow
survey of one author, some other studies mentioned directly or indirectly to the
phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature. In general, the
research works and articles on the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature have brought the relatively rich, multi-dimensional
conceptions, assessments. Basically, the developed issues are the concept of
phenomenon of bilingualism, confirming the existence and development of the
phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature. These
comments are directions for the writer during the topic to see more clearly
systematically and comprehensively the problem to be studied. However, the
phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature is still a complex
issue, requiring further research, from concepts, foundations, characteristics,
development process as well as expressions in terms of author, type and literary
language. The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
needs to be studied more systematically and comprehensively. And this is also
purpose, task we set out when implementing the thesis.

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1.3. THEORETICAL BASE OF THE THESIS
1.3.1. Interdisciplinary theory of language and literature
In this section, we discuss the relationship between language and
literature, especially the relationship between language and phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature.
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
is a unique and interesting literary phenomenon, both universal, literary
and linguistic. This phenomenon takes place internally in literature but is
also formed on certain linguistic, historical, social, cultural, literary and
aesthetic premises. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from an interdisciplinary
perspective, especially herein the interdisciplinary language and literature.
1.3.2. Interdisciplinary theory of culture and literature
In this section, we analyze the relationship between culture and
literature; the study of literature including the study of the phenomenon of
bilingualism from a cultural perspective. The appearance of phenomenon
of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature is not only a literary
phenomenon but also a cultural phenomenon, a cultural imprint of a
remarkable era. Without the influence of Chinese culture and literature,
especially the three religion culture, folklore and literature at different
levels of language, type and authors of literature, it would not have been
possible the formation and development of such phenomenon of
bilingualism. The problem is that we need to find out what levels of
influence and expression of culture on the formation, movement and
development of the phenomenon of bilingualism. Literary research
approach and criticism from cultural or interdisciplinary perspective and
literature is a direction with many advantages
1.3.3. Theory of literary comparison

In this section, the author summarizes the concept, purpose, object,
function and methods as well as manipulation of comparative literature
theory and the application of theory and manipulation of literary
comparison in the process of deploying research tasks of the thesis.


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1.3.4 Theory of type
In this section, the thesis author summarizes a number of issues
about literary type and author as well as the application of this theory to
the thesis.
SUMMARY
The phenomenon of bilingualism in literature is the phenomenon of
writing in borrowed language in parallel to the native language in a
literature at the same stage. Vietnamese medieval literature also existed the
phenomenon of bilingualism: the simultaneous use of Chinese and Nom
characters in writing
There were many studies on the history of Vietnamese medieval
literature, the characteristics of medieval literature, prosody, authors, types,
languages and in comparative studies with other literature in the region,
various aspects of bilingualism are mentioned at different levels. In
general, these works met in several points: first, Vietnamese medieval
literature had parallel existence and development of the two parts of
literature which were Chinese written literary part and Nom written
literary part; second, in those types, bilingualism was not specifically
analyzed as a phenomenon of both peculiar and universal nature, having its
own formation, development and movement. The intensive and meticulous
works on the bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature in particular
could be extended in the context of literature influenced by Chinese

culture in the region and even in the literature of the whole human race are
still ahead. That, it excited use to choose this topic
The theoretical basis of the thesis, besides the theoretical and practical
achievements of the disciplines such as literature, language, comparative literature,
literary type, etc., interdisciplinary research methods such as interdisciplinary
culture and literature, interdisciplinary language … should be applied
Above is an overview of the research and issues related to the thesis
topic. The problems, scholars, and researchers who have been involved in
the bilingualism in Vietnamese literature are greatly referred. Along with
the use of methods, theories are the theoretical basis of the topic, overview
of the research situation is the foundation for the author to build ideas.


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Chapter 2
GENERAL ISSUES OF THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
2.1. HISTORICAL – SOCIAL, IDEALOGICAL – CULTURAL –
LITERARY BASES OF THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
2.1.1. Social – historical premise
In this section, the author analyzes the historical and social conditions
and political preconditions that affect the formation, movement and
development of the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval
literature from the tenth century to the end of the nineteenth century.
2.1.2. Cultural, ideological premise
In this section, we analyze the intertwining of the national culture and
Confucian culture as well as the aesthetic viewpoints, medieval literary
conceptions that influences the formation, mobilization and development of
the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature.

2.1.3. Literary premise
Linguistic premise
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature is a
product of importing and using Chinese characters and the formation and
development of Nom characters. These two processes do not appear together but
have met each other since the thirteenth century when the use of Nom characters
in literary works was recorded in historical books. Here we outline these two
processes. In addition, the author also analyzes the similarities between Chinese
and Nom characters that affect the phenomenon of bilingualism
Typological premise
In this section, the writer explains the selection of Chinese characters
as the official language in administrative communication, education,
examinations and artistic creation, leading to our acquisition of literary
types of people. Chinese. Since then affirming type is also an important
premise contributing to the phenomenon of bilingualism in medieval
Vietnamese literature.


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2.2. FEATURES OF THE PHEOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
2.2.1. The multi-component nature of the phenomenon of bilingualism
In this section, we present achievements of Chinese literature
composition and Nom literature composition and analyze the relationship
between Chinese literature and Nom literature.
2.2.2. The inequality of bilingualism
Here, the author analyzes the inequality of the phenomenon of
bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature expressed in the conception
of orthodox Confucianism and feudal class, the notions of lofty literature

with Chinese writing and real life, colloquial literature with Nom writing.
2.3. THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE PHENONMENON OF
BILINGUALISM IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
2.3.1. Literary period from the 10th century to the end of the
fourteenth century
In this section, we analyze our ancestors’ selection of Chinese
characters and the achievements of early Chinese character literature. In
addition, the author generalizes the formation and development of
literature written in Nom characters forming the phenomenon of
bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from the thirteenth century.
2.3.2. Literary period from the 15th century to the end of the 17th
century
Here, the writer presents the achievements of the phenomenon of
bilingualism in the flourishing development of both Chinese literature and
Nom literature
2.3.3. Literary period from the 18th century to the end of the 19th
century
In this section, the author presents the achievements of the
phenomenon of bilingualism during the peak development period of the
phenomenon of bilingualism in both scope of literature and the author with
brilliant milestones in the endogenous ethnic literature type including
historical theater, melody, poem, and singing with speech


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2.4. PHENONMENON OF BILINGUALISM IN VIETNAMESE
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE IN REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
LITERATURE CONTEXT
In this section, we present the history and characteristics of the

phenomenon of bilingualism in Japanese literature and North Korean / Korean
literature. At the same time analyze the common and specific characteristics of
the phenomenon of bilingualism in medieval literature of countries influenced
by Chinese culture: Vietnam, Japan and North Korea / Korea.
CONCLUSION
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
was formed on certain historical, social, cultural, ideological, aesthetic,
literary and linguistic bases. First and foremost was the official birth of
written literature around the 10th century after Ngo Quyen's defeat of the
South Chinese army on the Bach Dang River, opening a long period of
independence for the nation. Previously, our country literature only had
folk literature. Since there was no complete and unified language, our
ancestors had to borrow Chinese characters in administration and in
literary writing. Literature written in Nom character was born about two
centuries after Chinese character literature, but quickly became deeply
rooted in literary life and rapidly developed in parallel with Chinese
character literature. From the fifteenth century onwards, two literary parts
written in borrowed languages, Chinese and the indigenous language, Nom
have existed in parallel, which forms a very unique and typical
bilingualism of Vietnamese medieval literature
In development of Vietnamese medieval literature, the bilingualism
was both multi-component and unequal. The multi-component nature of
the literature showed the diversity and richness of literature with literature
written in Chinese characters and Nom characters as well as the two
dimensional relationship between Chinese and Nom and vice versa.


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Meanwhile, the inequality of bilingualism in literature from the tenth

century to the end of the nineteenth century showed a somewhat harsh
literary concept when considering Chinese character literature as true and
lofty. The poetry written in Nom characters was not considered important,
ordinary and even sometimes feuded by the imperial court. But above all,
Nom character literature was constantly developing beside the literature
written in Chinese characters and achieving brilliant results in the later
stages, marking the victory of national literature written in Nom characters.
The development of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
may have been limited to the time when the use of Nom characters in
literary composition was recorded in 1282 when Nguyen Thuyen made an
alligator expelling oration and opened a movement of writing literature in
Nom characters at that time. Previously, our country's literature was only
composed in Chinese characters. Literature written in Nom began to leap
from the fifteenth century with Quoc am thi tap by Nguyen Trai and then
Hong Duc quoc am thi tap by Hong Duc period authors. By the sixteenth
century, Bach Van quoc ngu thi by Nguyen Binh Khiem appeared, but
Nom character literature was somewhat slow. Meanwhile, in this period,
Chinese character literature was still very developed. From the eighteenth
century to the end of the nineteenth century, it was the most flourishing
stage with the emergence of indigenous types such as poetry, rhyming and
singing while speaking. Nom character literature has prevailed against
Chinese character literature.
Bilingualism is a phenomenon that is unique, but also universal. Not
only Vietnamese medieval literature, this phenomenon appears in literature of
western countries in medieval period such as in England, France, Italy,
Germany…. Literature in countries in the region influenced by Chinese
culture such as North Korean / Korean and Japanese literature is also found in
borrowed languages (Chinese characters) in addition to the composition in the
local language. This shows that the bilingualism in Vietnamese literature is
similar in the context of regional literature and world literature.

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Chapter 3
TYPES OF BILINGUAL AUTHOR IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL
LITERATURE
3.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ABOUT AUTHOR AND
TYPES OF LITERARY AUTHOR
3.1.1. Concept of type and types of literary author
In this section, the thesis author introduces the concepts of type and
types of literary author
3.1.2. Types of literary author in Vietnamese medieval literature
Here, we present types of author in Vietnamese medieval literature
from research works of some prestigious scholars. Since then, the writer
argues and generalizes the types of bilingual author in Vietnamese
literature from the tenth century to the end of the nineteenth century.
3.2. STUDY ON SOME TYPICAL BILINGUAL AUTHORS IN
VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
In this section, we analyze the factors of age, family, life and people
that influence the bilingual composition of some typical authors such as
Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du, Cao Bat Quat and Nguyen
Khuyen, at the same time, analyze the contributions of these authors to the
phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature.
3.3. FEATURES OF TYPES OF BILINGUAL AUTHOR
In this section, the author presents and analyzes the characteristics of
types of bilingual author. Those are:
- The type of bilingual author with Confucian and competitionexamination background
- The type of bilingual author associated with the historical and
social context of the transitional period

- The type of bilingual author associated with secular Confucian
scholar and secluded Confucian scholar
- The type of bilingual author with artistic views, ideas of
Confucianist scholars


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3.4. DIVERSITY AND UNITY IN PERCEPTION OF BILINGUALISM
BY TYPES OF BILINGUAL AUTHOR IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL
LITERATURE
3.4.1. Diversity in perception of bilingualism by types of bilingual
author in medieval Vietnamese literature
In this section, the writer analyzes the diversity in the perception of
the bilingual status of the type of bilingual author in Vietnamese medieval
literature with four typical types of authors:
- Nguyen Trai with lyrical – political type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Binh Khiem with lyrical-philosophical type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Du with lyrical - narrative type of bilingual author
- Nguyen Khuyen with lyrical - satirical, inter-textual type of bilingual author
3.4.2. Unity in perception of bilingualism by types of bilingual
author in Vietnamese medieval literature
In this section, the author analyzes the cognitive unity for Chinese
literature and for Nom literature of the types of bilingual author in
medieval Vietnamese literature.
SUMMARY
Studying the history of literature can not ignore literary type system
and type. When research thinking is directed toward synthesis,
classification of literary phenomena is based on possible criteria that can
be generalized and acquired into a certain "aesthetic community." The

literary type of authors is based on these. There are different perspectives
on type of authors, type of authors in the Vietnamese medieval literature
such as literary type of author, poetic type of author; religious work
confusion scholar type of author, secluded type of author, amateur type of
author; Buddist priest type of author, king, nobleman, military leader type
of author… Types of bilingual author are based on such arguments.
Types of bilingual author in Vietnamese medieval literature have
general characteristics about origin, age, life and ideology, art
viewpoints. Typical bilingual authors in Vietnamese medieval literature
include Nguyen Trai, Le Thanh Tong, Nguyen Binh Khiem, Nguyen Du,


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Cao Ba Quat, Nguyen Khuyen and Nguyen Dinh Chieu. Each author has
own characteristics contributing to bilingualism in particular and the
national history of literature in general. From expression of the
bilingualism in the authors, we can see that the bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature goes from Chinese - Nom bilingualism
to Chinese – Nom "inter-text” bilingualism
From the study on features of types of bilingual author as well as the
survey of bilingual composition career of some typical authors, we can see
a "diversity and unity in the perception of bilingual status in Vietnamese
medieval literature ". While the diversity leads to different types of
bilingual authors: Nguyen Trai with lyrical – political type of bilingual
author; Nguyen Binh Khiem with lyrical-philosophical type of bilingual
author; Nguyen Du with lyrical - narrative type of bilingual author and
Nguyen Khuyen with lyrical - satirical, inter-textual type of bilingual
author. Meanwhile, the unity in the perception of bilingual status in both
types of discourse (composed in Chinese and Nom characters) of bilingual

authors shows that: there is no important side to contempt; no party put all
their enthusiasm, the playing party; no party only knows the expectation,
the party towards the nation; the party has masterpieces, the side also has
valuable works. The bilingual authors consider Chinese and Nom writing
as authentic literature, all having artistic uses
Chapter 4
SOME PROBLEMS OF TYPE AND LANGUAGE FROM VIEW OF
THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM IN VIETNAMESE
MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
4.1. SOME PROBLEMS OF TYPE FROM VIEW OF THE
PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM
4.1.1. The development of type from view of the phenomenon of
bilingualism
In this section, we analyze three development stages of Vietnamese
medieval literature from view of the phenomenon of bilingualism


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The first phase mainly was foreign receptions (mainly China). This
was an opening period, laying a solid and comprehensive foundation for
Vietnamese medieval literature.
The next stage was the coexistence of receptive types with
nationalized type. If in the first stage, Vietnamese medieval literature was
associated with Chinese characters, this second phase of Vietnamese
medieval literature was associated with Nom characters.
In the final stage, endogenous literary types flourished. In this period,
Nom characters developed with a dominant position, and the Vietnamese
language of literature matured significantly. Along with the Chinese Vietnamese words that have been fully Vietnamized and used like
Vietnamese, the daily words of laborers went into literature and integrated

into the Vietnamese poetry system. This trend gradually reduced the
normative norms due to the acquisition of Chinese culture, making the
literary language flexible, soft, expressive and close to the real life. It can
be said that, for nearly ten centuries of medieval literature, never literary
language has been so nationalized and democratized as this period.
4.1.2. The phenomenon of bilingualism in literary types acquired
from Chinese character literature
In this section, the author analyzes the following issues:
- The phenomenon of writing in Chinese characters and Chinese Nom bilingualism with some functional literary types;
- The phenomenon of writing in Chinese characters and Chinese Nom bilingualism with some types of literature and art;
- The phenomenon of bilingualism in nationalized literary types with
Nom-Tang Prosody poetry and Nom-Tang Prosody poetry story
- The phenomenon of bilingualism in types of endogenous literature
such as: poetry story, singing with speech
4.2. THE PHENOMENON OF BILINGUALISM WITH LANGUAGE
IN VIETNAMESE MEDIEVAL LITERATURE
4.2.1. The development of the phenomenon of bilingualism in
Vietnamese medieval literature from the linguistic perspective
In this section, we generalize the development of the phenomenon of


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bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature from the linguistic aspect
into two rules: Firstly, the bilingual phenomenon in Vietnamese medieval
literature went from linguistic perspective mainly from Chinese writings,
followed by use of Nom characters in composition, finally is the
domination of Nom characters; Secondly, the phenomenon of bilingualism
in Vietnamese medieval literature in terms of language went from the
Chinese element with heavily elegant, bookish, scholarly language to the

Nom element with the nature, close-to-life language
4.2.2 The problem of dealing with foreign and endogenous
elements in terms of language in the phenomenon of bilingualism
In this section, the writer analyzes Chinese language in Vietnamese
medieval literature with the use of Chinese characters, Chinese classical
texts and poems in literary works of some typical bilingual authors;
At the same time, the author analyzes ethnic languages in Vietnamese
medieval literature of some typical bilingual authors with the use of
Vietnamese words and folklore languages such as idioms, proverbs, folk
songs, oral language, often considered a common linguistic component;
analyzes the interaction between the Chinese language and the national
language in both directions of influences from Chinese to Vietnamese and
from Vietnamese to Chinese.
SUMMARY
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
was profoundly expressed in terms of type and language. The
development of types viewed from bilingualism - from the types absorbed
from the Chinese language, through the ethnic type with use of
Vietnamese - Nom, to the endogenous literature type with superior
position of Vietnamese – Nom characters. Functional literary types such
as petition, edict-like announcement, royal proclamation, Buddhistic poet
were written entirely in Chinese, but poetic essay and funeral oration
belonging to this group also existed compositions written in Chinese and
Nom. In foreign literature, narrative prose types were also written in
Chinese characters such as chronicles, legends, and novels. The lyrical art


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types had writing in bilingual Chinese - Nom as poetry, poetic essay. In

which, poetry was the most clear and powerful expression of the Chinese
– Nom bilingualism with the formation and development of Tang prosody
Nom poetry, the most successful type of nationalization in Vietnamese
medieval literature history. The mobilization and development of
bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature in the final stage marked
the birth of endogenous types such as poetry, rhyming and singing. In
these types, Nom characters were completely dominant, and works
written in Chinese characters were at least in the narrative prose category
as poetry. At the same time in the works written in Nom, Chinese Viet
words also appeared with a little frequency.
In terms of language, the phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese
medieval literature has parallel existence of Chinese and ethnic languages
(Nom characters). Chinese language elements include Chinese words,
classical historical references, and Chinese poems. Meanwhile, the
national language includes slogans, proverbs, idioms and folk songs. The
Chinese and Nom elements of language not only exist independently of
each other but also influence each other. Of course, the Chinese to Nom
influence is still stronger Chinese the opposite one from Nom to Chinese.
CONCLUSION
1. The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval
literature is a phenomenon that is both unique and universal. It was one of
the typical features of Vietnamese medieval literature from the tenth
century to the end of the nineteenth century. This phenomenon is also
universal because the literature of countries in the region influenced by
Chinese characters culture such as Korea / North Korea and Japan has
phenomenon of composing both borrowing language (Chinese) and local
language (Y Du, Hangul in Korea / North Korea, Kana in Japanese
literature). Meanwhile, in some Western countries such as England, France,
Italy, Germany,... the phenomenon of borrowing Latin for composing in
addition to the native language also exists

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2. The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval
literature is formed on certain historical and social bases, namely, history
of Chinese written literature when the country entered the long term period
of independence. But the national pride and consciousness of people of a
country with cultural and historical tradition has inspired generations of
our ancestors to use Nom characters in literary writing since the 12th
century. This was also a milestone in the emergence of the phenomenon of
bilingualism in Vietnamese literature. This phenomenon is based on the
premises of ideology, culture and aesthetics influenced by Confucianism,
feudal society, and national consciousness. The language policies of feudal
dynasties in trying to maintain the monopoly and orthodox status of
Chinese characters as well as the policy of encouraging use of Nom
characters and respecting Nom characters of certain dynasties in history
are also a contributing factor to the parallel existence of both Chinese and
Nom characters written literature. In addition, Nom itself, in the process of
mobilization and development, shows the advantages and limitations of
writing. Therefore, although as a national language, Nom characters
cannot be able to dislodge the Chinese characters to stand in such unified
and orthodox position, but also gain certain advantages in the final stage
and in the purely national types. Any phenomenon has the process of
formation, movement, transformation and development with its own rules.
The bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature is not out of this rule
The phenomenon of bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature
is unequal bilingualism. While literature written in Chinese is valued, Nom
character literature is not, even not considered as true literary works.
Chinese writing is regarded as noble, elegant while Nom writing is

considered colloquial, mediocre.
The bilingualism in Vietnamese medieval literature could be
divided into three stages of development. The first stage, from the 10th
to the 14th centuries, with compositions mainly in Chinese characters;
The second phase, from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, with
the simultaneous existence of two parts composed in Chinese characters
and Nom characters and the last stage, from the XVIII century - the end


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of the nineteenth century with the dominance of Vietnamese language,
Nom characters.
3. In interplay relationships, the phenomenon of bilingualism is
most apparent in the type of authors. In Vietnamese medieval literature,
there was a type of authors who composed both in Chinese and in Nom
characters. Typical of these were names like Nguyen Trai, Nguyen Binh
Khiem, Nguyen Du and Nguyen Khuyen. Bilingual authors have the
following characteristics: Type of bilingual author with Confucian and
competition-examination background; Type of bilingual author
associated with the historical and social context of the transitional
period; Type of bilingual author associated with secular Confucian
scholar and secluded Confucian scholar; Type of bilingual author with
artistic views, ideas of Confucianist scholars. Research on the types of
bilingual authors also shows the diversity and consistency in perception
of bilingual status in Vietnamese medieval literature. Diversity brings
many types of authors in bilingual author types such as: Nguyen Trai
with lyrical – political type of bilingual author, Nguyen Binh Khiem
with lyrical-philosophical type of bilingual author, Nguyen Du with
lyrical - narrative type of bilingual author, Nguyen Khuyen with lyrical

- satirical, inter-textual type of bilingual author. Meanwhile, the unity in
the perception of bilingualism showed that the authors considered
Chinese and Nom writing as authentic art works.
4. The phenomenon of bilingualism in medieval Vietnamese
literature is also manifested in terms of genre and language. In terms of
genre, bilingual phenomenon appears in both functional literature and
artistic literature with the same degree and scale. In functional literature,
there is a phenomenon of bilingualism mainly in the genre, heterosexual
and shelf. Meanwhile, other types of functional literature such as foxes,
screenings, banners, literature, hearings, tunes, etc. are mostly written in
Chinese characters. In the narrative prose models, only the transcript of
Nguyen The Nghi's continental transcript is that he translated the Nom
script from the remaining Nguyen Du's Truyen ky man luc, which was
composed in Chinese. In the genre of lyrical arts, Nom script has emerged