Chapter 3 – Unit 1
The Accounting Equation –
Depreciation, Inventory and Ratios
IET 35000
Engineering Economics
Learning Objectives – Chapter 3
Upon completion of this chapter you should understand:
Accounting equation entries applied to capital costs and
expenses and their impact on financial statements.
Depreciation methods, calculating depreciation and book
value of assets and the affect on profit, taxes and cash flow.
Inventory management and the affect on the accounting
equation.
Financial statement ratios and their use for economic
decision making.
2
Learning Objectives – Unit 1
Upon completion of this unit you should understand:
Accounting equation entries applied to capital costs and
expenses and their impact on financial statements.
Depreciation methods, calculating depreciation and book
value of assets and the affect on profit, taxes and cash flow.
Inventory management and the affect on the accounting
equation.
Financial statement ratios and their use for economic
decision making.
3
1
Cash Outflows
Organizations spend money (cash outflow) for a variety of
needs including:
Product or service related items such as materials, wages,
and overhead.
Administration related items such as wages, supplies,
marketing and overhead.
Financial related items such as debt payments, dividends
and financial securities.
Permanent equipment, land and facilities.
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Cash Outflows
Cash outflows are categorized as:
Expenses – includes cash outflows for items that are used
within a short time period such as supplies and raw
materials, or for services such as labor, wages and utilities.
Capital – includes cash outflows for items that are
permanent or will be used over an extended time period
such as equipment, buildings and land. Also business start‐
up costs and cost of improvements are capitalized.
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Cash Outflows
Expense:
Entire cash outflow is included as a cost or expense on the
income statement during the time period in which the
transaction occurs.
Expensing is the term for an expenditure that reduces cash
and increases a cost account of the Accounting Equation.
Since an expense is immediately reflected on the income
statement, net income is reduced resulting in a reduced
income tax liability.
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2
Cash Outflows
Capital:
Cash outflow is included as an asset on the sheet for the
time period in which the transaction occurs.
Capitalizing is the term for an expenditure that reduces
cash and increases an asset account of the Accounting
Equation.
Since a capital expenditure is not reflected on the income
statement, there is no change in net income and therefore
not change in the income tax liability.
The cost of a capital expenditure is accounted for by
depreciation, amortization or depletion.
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Expensing or Capitalizing?
Decisions whether to expense or capitalize cash expenditures
are based in part on the following criteria:
Life – short life or immediately consumed is an expense.
Long life is capitalized.
Value – expensive equipment is capitalized and low cost
items are expensed. Many firms establish a dollar cut‐off
amount for expensing versus capitalizing. IUPUI uses a
$5,000 minimum amount to be capitalized and tracks all
capital items with an inventory tag.
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Expensing or Capitalizing?
Criteria (continued):
Matching considerations – items are expensed or
capitalized so that the costs occur in the same time period
as revenues from selling output.
Accounting conventions – GAAP and company policies may
determine whether to expense or capitalize.
Special situations – unique and one‐time events may
determine whether to expense or capitalize.
Internal Revenue Service guidelines.
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Why Capitalize?
Initially it may seem that expensing all cash outflows would
be beneficial since an expense has the affect of reducing tax
liability.
Generally, capitalizing expenses with long‐life spans is
preferable to avoid the immediate negative affect on net
income.
Matching the use of a capital asset to the time period of its
use through depreciation, amortization or depletion
accurately reflects the true cost to the organization.
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Why Expense?
Expensing cash outflows is beneficial since an expense has
the affect of reducing tax liability.
An expense can only be included on the income statement
one time so even if the asset continues to be used, it will no
longer affect net income.
Capitalizing regular operating expenses will have the affect of
increasing cash flow and creating the appearance of
profitability. This distorts the true financial condition of the
organization and, because the capitalized expenses will affect
future periods net income, this approach is equivalent to
paying for items that have long since been used.
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Expensing or Capitalizing?
The Internal Revenue Code, Treasury Regulations (including new regulations
proposed in 2006), and case law set forth a series of guidelines that help to
distinguish expenses from capital expenditures, although in reality
distinguishing between these two types of costs can be extremely difficult. In
general, four types of costs related to tangible property must be capitalized:
1. Costs that produce a benefit that will last substantially beyond the end
of the taxable year.
2. New assets that have a useful life substantially beyond one year.
3. Improvements that prolong the life of the property, restore property to a
“like‐new” condition, or add value to the property.
4. Adaptations that permit the property to be used for a new or different
purpose.
Reference: />
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4
Timing
Cash Accounting System – sales of product or service is
recorded when payment is received.
Could result in cost and revenues which are not matched
or synchronized regarding time periods.
Accrual Accounting System – sale of product or service is
recorded when the shipment is made or the service delivered
through accounts receivable entries.
This system results in better matching costs and revenues
in the same time period.
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End Unit 1 Material
Additional Reading Chapters 1 and 7 of IRS
Publication 535 Business Expenses
Go to Unit 2 Depreciation
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Chapter 3 – Unit 2
Depreciation
IET 35000
Engineering Economics
5
Learning Objectives – Unit 2
Upon completion of this unit you should understand:
Accounting equation entries applied to capital costs and
expenses and their impact on financial statements.
Depreciation methods, calculating depreciation and book
value of assets and the affect on profit, taxes and cash flow.
Inventory management and the affect on the accounting
equation.
Financial statement ratios and their use for economic
decision making.
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Noncash Outflows
Costs associated with assets that have been capitalized are
recovered over time by including a noncash expense on the
income statement. Noncash outflows include:
Depreciation – used for tangible assets such as buildings
and equipment.
Amortization – used for intangible assets such as patents,
trademarks and copyrights.
Depletion – used for productive land assets such as timber,
minerals and oil.
Optional Reading Chapters 8 and 9 of IRS Publication 535 Business
Expenses contains more information on amortization and depletion.
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Depreciation
Depreciation is a noncash expense that is included in the
accounting equation for a fiscal time period. Accounting
equation entries are:
Depreciation is added as a cost to be assigned to the
income statement.
Depreciation is subtracted from the asset account
ultimately reducing the total asset value on the balance
sheet.
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6
Depreciation
Depreciation concepts:
Depreciation is not a cash flow. No one writes a check or
transfers money to ‘depreciation’. It is an adjustment to
the financial statements to represent the expensing of a
previous capital cash outflow.
Several methods of determining the depreciation amount
exists. Since the depreciation method selected affects net
income and therefore taxes, the IRS requires specific
depreciation methods.
Depreciation applies only to assets used for business.
Personal assets such as a home cannot be depreciated.
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Depreciation
Depreciation terminology:
Basis or Asset Value – cost of acquiring and installing the
asset. When cost is not available, fair market value is used.
Asset Life – estimated useful life of the asset in years.
Salvage Value – estimated asset value plus the cost to
remove or dispose the asset at the end of its life. Note that
a salvage value can be zero.
Book Value – basis minus accumulated depreciation for an
asset.
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Depreciation
Live and salvage value estimates are based on:
Physical considerations – durability, quality, reliability,
expected level of use, history, vendor recommendation.
Economic considerations – even though the asset may
physically be functional, increasing maintenance costs may
result in replacement.
Replacement policies – periodic replacement of vehicles
based on time or mileage. Periodic replacement of assets
that technology evolve such as computers.
Technological considerations – obsolescence due to newer
technologies – computers, software.
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Depreciation
Depreciation calculation methods:
Straight‐Line (SL) – allowable in current tax code.
Sum‐of‐Years‐Digits (SOYD) – not currently allowed by the IRS
except for assets put into service prior to 1986.
Declining Balance (DB) – not currently allowed by the IRS except
for assets put into service prior to 1981.
Unit‐of‐Output Method –currently allowed by IRS.
Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) – replaced by MACRS.
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) – current
accelerated depreciation system allowed by IRS.
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Straight‐Line Method
Simplest depreciation method. Depreciation is a constant
amount each year.
Life and salvage value are estimated at time of purchase.
Depreciation is then found by:
Basis ‐ Salvage Value
Depreciation/year
Life
Note: Straight‐line depreciation equation on page 85 of Bowman text has an
error. Equal sign between ‘First Cost’ and ‘Salvage Value’ should be a minus sign.
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Sum‐of‐Years‐Digits Method
Introduced in 1950 and used through 1980’s. Only allowed by
IRS for assets put into service prior to 1986.
Referred to as accelerated depreciation method since more
depreciation cost occurs in earlier portion of asset life.
Asset life in years is estimated at time of purchase. Sum of
years is then found by:
nn 1
Sum of Years
2
where : n estimated life in # years
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Sum‐of‐Years‐Digits Method
Sum of years and estimated salvage value are then used to
determine the depreciation amount for each year:
n 1 ‐ j
Depreciation in year j
Basis ‐ Salvage
SY
where : n estimated life in # years
SY Sum of years value
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Method Comparison
Straight‐Line depreciation yields a constant amount while
Sum‐of‐Years‐Digits results in accelerated depreciation.
Compare the plots of the two methods from the text example
where basis = $100,000, life = 10 years and salvage = $10,000
Bowman page 86 Bowman page 93
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Declining Balance Method
Introduced in 1950’s and used through 1981. Only allowed by
IRS for assets put into service prior to 1981.
Like Sum‐of‐Years‐Digits, Declining Balance is an accelerated
depreciation method and is the basis of the current modified
accelerated cost recovery method.
Declining Balance method employs a multiplication factor of
1.25, 1.5, 1.75 or 2.0 with a Straight‐Line depreciation
amount.
When a multiplication factor of 2.0 is used, the method is
referred to as the Double Declining Balance method.
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Declining Balance Method
Salvage value is not used with this method.
Remember that the book value is the initial basis less the
accumulated depreciation.
The calculation is repeated for each year of the estimated life
of the asset.
Book Value
Depreciation DB Factor
Life
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Unit‐of‐Output Method
Incorporates the actual use of the asset to determine
depreciation. Examples:
Depreciation per sheet on a copy machine.
Depreciation per hour on a jet engine.
Depreciation per piece on a production line.
Logically this method will match the depreciation expense
with the actual use of the asset. Disadvantage is the
requirement of monitoring the actual use of the asset.
IRS allows unit‐of‐production (their term) depreciation if the
method is elected when asset is put into service.
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MACRS Method
Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS) was
established in 1986 and is the method approved by the IRS.
MACRS method classifies assets into categories and specifies
the life to be used in the depreciation calculation (Table 3‐3).
Bowman page 94
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MACRS Method
MACRS table provides percentages that are used with the
basis to determine annual depreciation amounts (Table 3‐4).
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Bowman page 95
MACRS Method
Depreciation for a specific year is simply the basis multiplied
by the MACRS factor for that year:
Depreciationyear i Basis MACRS Factoryear i
Book value is determined as before, basis less accumulated
depreciation:
Book Value year i Basis ‐ Accumulated Depreciation
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Compare the book value plots of the various methods using the
text example (basis = $100,000, life = 10 yrs, salvage = $10,000):
$100,000
Straight Line
$90,000
$80,000
Sum of Years Digits
$70,000
Declining Balance
(1.5 Factor)
Book Value
$60,000
Double Declining
Balance
$50,000
MACRS
$40,000
$30,000
$20,000
$10,000
$0
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Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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Selling Assets
Since the book value of a capitalized asset is based on
accumulated depreciation which was determined by a
formula, actual value typically does not equal book value.
If an asset is sold or salvaged, the transaction requires entries
in the accounting equation which ultimately affects the
financial statements.
If the asset is salvaged for exactly the book value, cash is
increased and assets are decreased by that amount.
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Selling Assets
If the asset is salvaged for more than the book value, the
revenue minus the book value is the ‘profit’ from the sale.
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Selling Assets
If the asset is salvaged for less than the book value, the
revenue minus the book value is the ‘loss’ from the sale.
If an asset is retained by the company beyond its estimated
life, it is carried on the books at its fully depreciated book
value which could be zero.
If an asset undergoes a major rehabilitation or upgrade which
extends the life of the asset, the cost associated with the
activity is also capitalized and depreciated over time.
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Microsoft Excel® Hints
Excel® has several built‐in depreciation functions including:
SLN(cost, salvage, life) straight‐line depreciation for one
period.
DB(cost, salvage, life, period, month) fixed‐declining
depreciation for a specified period.
DDB(cost, salvage, life, period, factor) declining balance
depreciation for a specified period.
SYD(cost, salvage, life, per) sum‐of‐years’ digits depreciation
for a specified period.
VDB(cost, salvage, life, start_period, end_period, factor,
no_switch) double‐declining balance depreciation for a
specified period including partial periods.
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Example Problem 3.1
Example Problem 3.1 Solution
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End Unit 2 Material
Additional Reading Chapter 1 of IRS
Publication 946 How to Depreciation Property
Go to Unit 3 Inventory
39
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Chapter 3 – Unit 3
Inventory
IET 35000
Engineering Economics
Learning Objectives – Unit 3
Upon completion of this unit you should understand:
Accounting equation entries applied to capital costs and
expenses and their impact on financial statements.
Depreciation methods, calculating depreciation and book
value of assets and the affect on profit, taxes and cash flow.
Inventory management and the affect on the accounting
equation.
Financial statement ratios and their use for economic
decision making.
41
Inventory Accounting
Inventory represents a major asset category.
Inventory cost dependent on the inventory accounting
system used.
Product cost and price also dependent on the inventory
accounting system used.
Inventory accounting system varies depending on the type of
business:
Retail or wholesale distribution.
Manufacturing.
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Inventory Accounting
Retail or Wholesale Distribution
Accounting equation entries when inventory purchased:
Decrease cash asset account by purchase cost.
Increase inventory asset account by purchase cost.
Accounting equation entries when inventory sold:
Decrease inventory asset account by inventory cost.
Increase cost of goods sold cost account by inventory cost.
Increase cash asset account by sales price.
Increase sales revenue account by sales price.
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Inventory Accounting
Retail or Wholesale Distribution – text example (figure 3‐5):
Purchase inventory for $1,000.
Sell inventory for $1,500 and adjust inventory for the sale
by $1,000.
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Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing
Finished goods inventory value includes all the costs required
to convert raw material into sellable product.
Figure 3‐7 Manufacturing Inventory Cost Pipeline
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Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing
Accounting equation entries when raw materials are
purchased:
Decrease cash asset account by purchase cost.
Increase inventory asset account by purchase cost.
Accounting equation entries as material moves through
manufacturing sequence:
Decrease cash asset account by labor and overhead costs as
they are expended.
Increase inventory asset account by labor and overhead
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costs.
Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing (continued)
Accounting equation entries when finished product inventory
sold:
Decrease inventory asset account by inventory cost.
Increase cost of goods sold cost account by inventory cost.
Increase cash asset account by sales price.
Increase sales revenue account by sales price.
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Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing – text example (figure 3‐6):
Purchase raw material inventory. Add labor cost and
overhead expense required for completion.
Adjust inventory and cost of goods sold by finished inventory
cost.
Adjust sales and cash
accounts by selling cost.
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Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing (additional concepts)
Most manufacturing organizations accumulate costs by
production lot.
Raw material issued would be moved to a work‐in‐process
(WIP) inventory account for each production lot.
Labor costs and overhead expenses would be assigned to
WIP inventory account.
Finished inventory cost would then be based on accumulated
production lot costs.
Cost of goods sold becomes more complex in this system.
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Inventory Accounting
Manufacturing (additional concepts)
Raw Material Inventory Account
WIP Inventory
Account ‐ Lot 12345
WIP Inventory
Account ‐ Lot 34567
WIP Inventory
Account ‐ Lot 56789
Direct Labor Cost +
Overhead Expense
Direct Labor Cost +
Overhead Expense
Direct Labor Cost +
Overhead Expense
Finished Goods Inventory
Account
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Example Problem 3.2
Example Problem 3.2 Solution
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End Unit 3 Material
Go to Unit 4 Financial Statement Ratios
52
Chapter 3 – Unit 4
Financial Statement Ratios
IET 35000
Engineering Economics
Learning Objectives – Unit 4
Upon completion of this unit you should understand:
Accounting equation entries applied to capital costs and
expenses and their impact on financial statements.
Depreciation methods, calculating depreciation and book
value of assets and the affect on profit, taxes and cash flow.
Inventory management and the affect on the accounting
equation.
Financial statement ratios and their use for economic
decision making.
54
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Financial Statement Ratios
Income Statements, Balance Sheets and Cash Flow
Statements give us the financial history of the organization.
Sound management decision‐making requires comparison
financial data from these statements:
Horizontal Analysis – comparing changes in financial
statements between periods of time.
Vertical Analysis – comparing changes in percentage of
cost or profit to net income within a time period.
Benchmarking – comparing financial results to other
organizations or industry averages.
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Financial Statement Ratios
Categories of ratios and percentages commonly used:
Liquidity – evaluates how much cash or near cash is
available to the organization.
Profitability – include return on assets, sales, investment
and similar ratios.
Assets – measures asset management.
Debt –measures debt to asset ratios and use of debt.
Security – evaluates the financial condition of the
organization from the owners (shareholders) perspective.
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Liquidity Ratios
Current Ratio
Measures how many current assets would remain if all
current liabilities are paid.
Historically a conservative CR 2.0 has been the target.
Liquidity ratios are usually acceptable when cash flow is
sufficient.
Current Ratio
Current Assets
Current Liabilitie s
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Liquidity Ratios
Quick Ratio
More conservative than Current Ratio since inventory is
removed from current assets.
Philosophy is that inventory may not be quickly liquidated.
Liquidity ratios typically become too low when cash flow is
weak indicating potential liquidity problems.
Quick Ratio
Current Assets ‐ Inventories
Current Liabilitie s
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Profitability Ratios
Profit Ratio
Reports on profit as a percentage of sales either before or
after taxes.
Very common ratio reported by press and used to compare
organizations and segments of industry.
Net Income
Profit Ratio
Sales
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Profitability Ratios
Earning Power Percentage
Measures how well the assets are used to produce profit.
“King” of financial ratios since it includes profit from the
income statement and total assets from the balance
statement.
Profit Before Tax and Interest
Earning Power
Total Assets
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Profitability Ratios
Return on Assets Percentage
Similar to Earning Power percentage.
No significant financial transaction can occur without
affecting the Earning Power and Return on Assets.
Low Earning Power and Return on Assets indicate that the
organization may not be effectively using its assets.
Return on Assets
Net Income
Total Assets
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Profitability Ratios
Return on Equity Percentage
Measures how well the owners’ investment (common stock)
is turned into profit.
Average Return on Equity is approximately 12% in the U.S.
Lower Return on Equity may indicate management issues.
Return on Equity
Net Income
Common Equity
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Asset Ratios
Inventory Turnover Ratio
Inventory Turnover measures the organization’s inventory
management (asset) and the ability to meet customer
delivery requirements.
High ratios indicate assets (cash) tied up in inventory which
have no return on investment.
Low ratios indicate the potential inability to meet customer
delivery requirements.
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Asset Ratios
Inventory Turnover Ratio (continued)
U.S. average Turnover Ratio is 6 to 8 times per year. Notable
exceptions include Dell Computer who utilizes a build to
order philosophy (high turnover ratio).
Implementing lean and just‐in‐time manufacturing systems
will also increase the Turnover Ratio (20 to 100 range)
without affecting customer service.
Sales
Inventory Turnover Ratio
Inventory
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Asset Ratios
Days of Receivables Outstanding
Measures the average time it takes a customer to pay for the
product purchased in days.
Can be used to measure economic conditions and potential
cash flow .
Days of Receivables Outstanding
Accounts Receivable
Average Sales per Day
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Asset Ratios
Revenue to Assets Ratio
Shows the amount of assets that are required to support a
given level of sales.
Revenue to Assets Ratio
Sales
Total Assets
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Debt Ratios
Debt to Asset Percentage
Generally liabilities are acceptable if they produce a return
and the organization is able to pay the interest and principle.
Debt to Asset Ratio measures the percentage of assets that
come from borrowed funds.
Debt to Assets
Total Debt
Total Assets
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Debt Ratios
Debt to Net Worth Percentage
Measures proportion of external financing from debt funding
to total net worth.
High percentages indicates heavy reliance on debt financing
while low percentages indicate reliance on capital and profits.
Total Debt
Debt to Net Worth
Net Worth
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Security Ratios
Earning per Share (EPS)
Security ratios are from viewpoint of the shareholder/owner.
Earnings per Share is a measure of short‐term success of the
organization and is widely reported and followed.
Net Income
Earning per Share
Number of Shares
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Security Ratios
Price Earnings (PE) Ratio
Earnings per Share is a measure of market price to earning
power of the organization and is widely reported and
followed.
Market Price per Share
Price Earnings Ratio
Earnings per Shares
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Security Ratios
Book Value
Theoretical amount owners would receive if the firm was
liquidated.
Book Value units are $/share.
Owners' Equity
Book Value
Number of Shares
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Security Ratios
Payout Percentage
Reports on the percentage of profits paid out as dividends.
Asset‐intensive firms such as utilities typically have large
payouts while small and start‐up firms may have no or low
payouts.
Dividends
Payout
Net Income
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Security Ratios
Yield Percentage
Analogous to interest on a bond or savings account.
Earnings may have an affect on the stock price – higher
earnings could result in an increase of the stock market price.
Dividend per Share
Yield
Market Price
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Traditional Measurements
Whatever gets measured usually gets managed.
Financial statement based ratios goes back to the DuPont formula
developed in the 1920’s for Return on Equity:
Return on Equity Profit Ratio Revenue to Assets Assets to Equity
Sales
Total Assets
Net Income
Sales Total Assets Common Share Equity
Net Income
Common Share Equity
Goal was to manage each component so Return on Equity is
maximized.
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Manufacturing Measures
Several measures are typically used to monitor and manage
manufacturing operations.
Common measures may include:
Productivity – ratio of output/input.
Scrap Expense to Production Volume.
Inventory ratio comparing WIP and total inventory.
Indirect to Direct Labor ratio.
Any ratio that provides meaningful data for managing an
operation, department, function or firm can be developed
and used.
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