Encyclopedia of barbarian world and ancient europe 8000 BC to AD 1000 i

ANCIENT
EUROPE
8000 B.C. – A.D. 1000


ANCIENT
EUROPE
8000 B.C. – A.D. 1000
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE BARBARIAN WORLD
VOLUME I
THE MESOLITHIC TO COPPER AGE
(C. 8000 – 2000 B.C.)

Peter Bogucki & Pam J. Crabtree
Editors in Chief


Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World
Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree, Editors in Chief

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Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000 : encyclopedia of the Barbarian
world / Peter Bogucki, Pam J. Crabtree, editors.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
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1. Antiquities, Prehistoric—Europe—Encyclopedias. 2. Prehistoric
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CONTENTS

VOLUME I
■

List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000–
2000 B.C.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Chronology of Ancient Europe, 8000–
1000 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

■

1: DISCOVERING BARBARIAN EUROPE

Introduction (Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Humans and Environments (I. G. Simmons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Origins and Growth of European Prehistory (Paul G. Bahn) . . . . . 14
The Nature of Archaeological Data (Pam J. Crabtree and
Douglas V. Campana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Tollund Man (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Survey and Excavation (Albert Ammerman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Saltbæk Vig (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Dating and Chronology (Martin Bridge) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Archaeology and Environment (Petra Dark) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Settlement Patterns and Landscapes (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Trade and Exchange (Robert H. Tykot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Status and Wealth (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Hochdorf (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Gender (Janet E. Levy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ritual and Ideology (John Chapman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Hjortspring (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Archaeology and Language (David W. Anthony) . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

vii


C O N T E N T S

Warfare and Conquest (Lawrence H. Keeley and Russell S. Quick) . . 110
Maiden Castle (Niall Sharples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

■

2: POSTGLACIAL FORAGERS, 8000–4000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Postglacial Environmental Transformation (Neil Roberts) . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Northern Europe (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . .
Skateholm (Lars Larsson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tybrind Vig (Søren H. Andersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Northwest Europe (Christopher Tolan-Smith) .
Mount Sandel (Peter C. Woodman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Star Carr (Paul Mellars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Iberia (João Zilhão) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Muge Shell Middens (João Zilhão) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Upland Central and Southern Europe
(Barbara Voytek). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Gates Mesolithic (Clive Bonsall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Franchthi Cave (Julie M. Hansen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Eastern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . .
Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik (Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . . . . .

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■

3: TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE, 7000–4000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crops of the Early Farmers (Julie M. Hansen) . . . . . . . . . .
Livestock of the Early Farmers (Nerissa Russell) . . . . . . . . .
First Farmers of Europe (Curtis Runnels) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Achilleion (Ernestine S. Elster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Last Hunters and First Farmers on Cyprus (Alan H.
Simmons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transition to Farming in the Balkans (Mihael Budja) . . . . . .
Obre (Mihael Budja) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Farming Frontier on the Southern Steppes
(David W. Anthony). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spread of Agriculture Westward across the Mediterranean
(William K. Barnett) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arene Candide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caldeirão Cave (João Zilhão). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First Farmers of Central Europe (Lawrence H. Keeley and

Mark Golitko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bruchenbrücken (Detlef Gronenborn) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bylany (Jonathan Last) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beginnings of Farming in Northwestern Europe (Anne Tresset)
Neolithic Sites of the Orkney Islands (Peter Bogucki) . . . .
Hambledon Hill (Roger Mercer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

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283

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Transition to Farming along the Lower Rhine and Meuse
(Leendert P. Louwe Kooijmans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transition to Agriculture in Northern Europe (Anne Birgitte

Gebauer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sarup (Niels H. Andersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long Barrow Cemeteries in Neolithic Europe (Magdalena S.
Midgley). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 286
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. . 301
. . 304

■

4: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE, 5000–2000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe (William A. Parkinson) .
Early Copper Mines at Rudna Glava and Ai Bunar (William
A. Parkinson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Milk, Wool, and Traction: Secondary Animal Products
(Nerissa Russell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Southeastern Europe (William A.
Parkinson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Varna (Douglass W. Bailey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ovcharovo (Douglass W. Bailey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper Age Cyprus (Edgar Peltenburg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Eastern Europe (Malcolm Lillie) . . .
Domestication of the Horse (David W. Anthony) . . . . . . . .
Kolomischiina (Malcolm Lillie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Central Europe (Sarunas
Milisauskas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Brzes´c´ Kujawski (Peter Bogucki). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rondels of the Carpathians (Magdalena S. Midgley) . . . . . . .
Neolithic Lake Dwellings in the Alpine Region (Jörg Schibler,
Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Iceman (Paul G. Bahn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arbon-Bleiche 3 (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice
Choyke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Megalithic World (I. G. N. Thorpe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avebury (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barnenez (Serge Cassen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boyne Valley Passage Graves (George Eogan) . . . . . . . . . . .
Trackways and Boats (Malcolm Lillie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consequences of Farming in Southern Scandinavia
(Magdalena S. Midgley) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pitted Ware and Related Cultures of Neolithic Northern Europe
(Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ajvide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic Italy and Southern France (Caroline Malone) . . . .
Sion-Petit Chasseur (Marie Besse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Neolithic Temples of Malta (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia (Katina T. Lillios) . . . . . . . .
Los Millares (Robert Chapman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

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ix


C O N T E N T S

Corded Ware from East to West (Janusz Czebreszuk) . . . . . . . . . 467
Bell Beakers from West to East (Janusz Czebreszuk) . . . . . . . . . . 476

VOLUME II

■

List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.–
A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Chronology of Ancient Europe, 2000 B.C.–
A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

■

5: MASTERS OF METAL, 3000–1000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Significance of Bronze (Mark Pearce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Temperate Southeastern
Europe (H. Arthur Bankoff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe (Vajk
Szeverenyi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Spisˇsky´ Sˇtvrtok (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Italian Bronze Age (Mark Pearce). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Poggiomarino (Francesco Menotti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
El Argar and Related Bronze Age Cultures of the Iberian
Peninsula (Antonio Gilman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sardinia’s Bronze Age Towers (Emma Blake) . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Bronze Age Britain and Ireland (Joanna Brück) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Stonehenge (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Flag Fen (Francis Pryor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Irish Bronze Age Goldwork (Mary Cahill) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Bronze Age Scandinavia (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Bronze Age Coffin Burials (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Bronze Age Cairns (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Late Bronze Age Urnfields of Central Europe (Peter Bogucki). . . . . 86
Bronze Age Herders of the Eurasian Steppes (David W. Anthony) . . 92
Bronze Age Transcaucasia (Laura A. Tedesco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Bronze Age Cyprus (A. Bernard Knapp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Minoan World (David B. Small) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Knossos (Louise Steel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Mycenaean Greece (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

■

6: THE EUROPEAN IRON AGE, C. 800 B.C.–A.D. 400

Introduction (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

x

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Celts (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hallstatt and La Tène (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Celtic Migrations (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germans (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oppida (John Collis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manching (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hillforts (Barry Raftery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Origins of Iron Production (Michael N. Geselowitz) . . . . . . . .
Ironworking (Michael N. Geselowitz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coinage of Iron Age Europe (Colin Haselgrove) . . . . . . . . . .
Ritual Sites: Viereckschanzen (Matthew L. Murray) . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Feasting (Bettina Arnold). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
La Tène Art (Barry Raftery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Social Organization (Ian Ralston) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greek Colonies in the West (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vix (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greek Colonies in the East (Gocha R. Tsetskhladze) . . . . . . . .
Iron Age France (John Collis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gergovia (John Collis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Britain (Timothy Champion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Danebury (Barry Cunliffe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Ireland (Bernard Wailes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Irish Royal Sites (Bernard Wailes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Germany (Bettina Arnold) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kelheim (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Heuneburg (Bettina Arnold). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iberia in the Iron Age (Teresa Chapa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Etruscan Italy (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Roman Iron Age Scandinavia (Sophia Perdikaris) . . . . . . .
Iron Age Finland (Deborah J. Shepherd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biskupin (A. F. Harding). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Ukraine and European Russia (Gocha R. Tsetskhladze) .
Iron Age East-Central Europe (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Caucasia (Adam T. Smith) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dark Age Greece (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7: EARLY MIDDLE AGES/MIGRATION PERIOD

Introduction (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emporia (John Moreland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ipswich (Keith Wade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Harbors and Trading Sites (Dan Carlsson) . . .

Dark Ages, Migration Period, Early Middle Ages (Pam J.
Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History and Archaeology (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . .
State Formation (Tina L. Thurston). . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trade and Exchange (Tina L. Thurston) . . . . . . . . . . .

A N C I E N T

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xi


C O N T E N T S

Coinage of the Early Middle Ages (Alan M. Stahl). . . . . . . .
Gender in Early Medieval Europe (Christine Flaherty). . . . . .
Animal Husbandry (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Agriculture (Peter Murphy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mills and Milling Technology (Colin Rynne) . . . . . . . . .

Migration Period Peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . .
Baiuvarii (Thomas Fischer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dál Riata (Elizabeth A. Ragan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Goths between the Baltic and Black Seas
(Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Huns (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Langobards (Neil Christie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merovingian Franks (Bailey K. Young) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ostrogoths (Karen Carr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Picts (Colleen E. Batey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rus (Rae Ostman). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saami (Lars Ivar Hansen and Bjørnar Olsen) . . . . . . . . .
Scythians (Jan Chochorowski). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slavs and the Early Slav Culture (Micha1 Parczewski) . . . .
Vikings (Sophia Perdikaris). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visigoths (Karen Carr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Ships (Ole Crumlin-Pedersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jewelry (Nancy L. Wicker) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boats and Boatbuilding (D. M. Goodburn). . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clothing and Textiles (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Settlements in Iceland and Greenland (Thomas H.
McGovern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hofstaðir (Thomas H. McGovern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Settlements in Orkney and Shetland (Gerald F. Bigelow)
Early Christian Ireland (Terry Barry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clonmacnoise (Heather A. King) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Raths, Crannogs, and Cashels (James W. Boyle) . . . . . . . . . .
Deer Park Farms (C. J. Lynn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Dublin (Patrick F. Wallace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dark Age/Early Medieval Scotland (Elizabeth A. Ragan) . . .
Tarbat (Martin Carver) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Medieval Wales (Harold Mytum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anglo-Saxon England (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spong Hill (Catherine Hills). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sutton Hoo (Martin Carver) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
West Stow (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Winchester (Martin Biddle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking York (P. V. Addyman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merovingian France (Bailey K. Young) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tomb of Childeric (Bailey K. Young). . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Medieval Iberia (David Yoon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Viking and Viking Age Norway (Sophia Perdikaris) . . . . .
Pre-Viking and Viking Age Sweden (Nancy L. Wicker) . . . . .

xii

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356
361
366
371
376
380
381
384
386

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388
391
393
396
402
403
406
408
411
414
417
419

423
426
430
433

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436
442
445
450
456
460
462
466
469
476
480
489
496
498
500
501

508
511
519
525
533
537

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Pre-Viking and Viking Age Denmark (Tina L. Thurston)
Finland (Deborah J. Shepherd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Russia/Ukraine (Rae Ostman). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Staraya Ladoga (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hungary (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Czech Lands/Slovakia (Petr Meduna) . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany and the Low Countries (Peter S. Wells) . . . . .
Southern Germany (Thomas Fischer) . . . . . . . . . . . .

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542
548
554
563
568
572
580
586
593

■

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

xiii


MAPS

VOLUME I

Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000–2000 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix–xxiv
European and Mediterranean obsidian sources . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Selected sites in Mesolithic Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Selected sites where remains of wild and domesticated grains
have been found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Ranges of the wild ancestors of early livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
The concentration of sites in eastern and central Neolithic
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Selected sites in the western Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Extent of Linearbandkeramik settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selected sites of Copper Age Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Distribution of civilizations and selected CucuteniTripolye sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Selected Neolithic lake dwellings in the Swiss Alpine region. . . . . 386
Selected sites in southern Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Selected sites in Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia . . . . . . . . . . 457
Extent of Bell Beakers in Europe, the earliest dates of their
appearance, and their provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

VOLUME II

Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . xvii–xxii
Tin deposits in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Principal trade routes of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages . . . . . 28
Poggiomarino, Italy, and environs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Selected sites in southeast Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Eurasia about 2000 B.C. showing general location of selected
cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Bronze Age Transcaucasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Selected sites in Bronze Age Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Minoan Crete and selected sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

xv


M A P S

VOLUME II

Some of the principal oppida in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron production sites from 800 to 400 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution of Greek pottery of the fourth quarter of the sixth
century B.C. (not including east Greek pottery). . . . . . . .
The Black Sea region with major Greek colonies and local
peoples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in Iron Age France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in Iron Age Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected hillforts in the West Hallstatt Zone in southwest
Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites and selected populi of Iron Age Iberia . . . . . . . . .
Provinces and traditional cultural regions of Finland . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites and major polities in Bronze Age and Iron Age
Caucasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main emporia (wics) of northwest Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some Viking harbors and towns in the Baltic Sea region. . . . . . .
Major copper sources and oxhide ingot findspots . . . . . . . . . . .
Key sites and kindred territories of early Dál Riata . . . . . . . . . .
Extent of the Wielbark culture during the third century A.D. and
second half of the fourth century A.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The traditional view of Syagrius’s kingdom, stretching across most
of northern Gaul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Extent of Ostrogothic migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General extent of Pictland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of Slavs in the beginning of sixth century A.D. in light
of written sources and of archaeological data . . . . . . . . .
Extent of Visigothic migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scotland in the mid-sixth century and c. A.D. 900 . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in early medieval Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in early medieval Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected Pre-Viking and Viking Age sites in Denmark . . . . . . . .
Early medieval towns in Russia, Scandinavia,
and Byzantium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Migration period population movements. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Czech lands from the arrival of the Slavs to the beginnings
of the Czech Premyslide state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General features of southern Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xvi

155
165
199
209
213
233
243
254
277
304
325
335

352
387
389
397
402
404
415
420
470
481
526
543
564
573
582
594

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


PREFACE

When we were originally approached by Scribners to consider editing this
encyclopedia, our motivations for accepting this challenge were identical.
We were both keenly aware of the lack of authoritative yet comprehensive
information on European archaeology written for the general readership.
In particular, we knew that many high school, college, and public libraries
have very limited holdings in this area, and we wanted to fill this gap.

Although European prehistory stretches back hundreds of thousands
of years to the original colonization of the Continent by Homo erectus
populations from Africa, we chose to focus this encyclopedia on the period after the retreat of the Ice Age glaciers. These are the critical millennia during which the foundations of later European society known from
later historical accounts were established. The Gauls encountered by
Caesar, the Celts, the Germans, the Visigoths, and all the other European
peoples whom we see hazily through the lens of Classical authors had ancestors whom we know only from archaeology. Moreover, outside the
view of the Classical authors, peoples in northern and eastern Europe
continued to live prehistoric lives well after written records are available
for much of western and southern Europe.
The boundary dates for this encyclopedia were chosen deliberately.
Although the Ice Age had ended a millennium or more earlier, the postglacial hunting and gathering societies that had become well-established
by 8000 B.C. in many parts of Europe define the beginnings of continuous sequences of cultural development. Tracing such long-term patterns
of social and economic change is one of the major intellectual contributions of archaeology. Extending our coverage to A.D. 1000 allows us to
encompass the societies that followed the Roman domination of western
Europe and the peoples of eastern and northern Europe lying outside the
Roman frontiers during the first millennium A.D. Around A.D. 1000,
institutionalized governments organized on territorial principles were
established in eastern Europe and Scandinavia, and the resultant emergence of written records effectively ends prehistory in these areas.
In choosing contributors, we invited colleagues who are active researchers and who are among the authorities on their specific regions, topics, and periods. Archaeologists and prehistorians normally write for an

xvii


P R E F A C E

audience composed of fellow scholars, so writing for a non-specialist readership can pose a challenge. We would like to commend our contributors
for writing such splendid essays that explain what happened between about
8000 B.C. and A.D. 1000 across Europe so clearly and lucidly. Archaeologists
are also unusually busy people, and we are grateful that they were able to
compose their entries on a very short (in the academic world) schedule.

Many of these essays were written by colleagues preparing to depart on excavation projects or having just returned from the field.
This encyclopedia is divided into seven sections. The first contains introductory essays on important concepts in archaeology, with specific reference to European prehistory, while the six that follow divide the sequence of cultural developments into major periods: Mesolithic hunters
and gatherers, the first Neolithic farmers, developed Late Neolithic farming societies, stratified societies of the Bronze Age, Iron Age towns and
trade, and the peoples of the Migration period and Early Middle Ages.
Throughout we have included separate articles on key archaeological
sites, chosen from among thousands of sites throughout Europe because
they are typical for the period being discussed or have particularly informative remains. A glossary provides definitions of key terms, while a
detailed index serves as a guide to important topics. Chronological charts
and maps in each volume give the reader a way of quickly becoming oriented in time and space.
The task of inviting, persuading, cajoling, and hounding all these contributors fell to Alja Collar of Scribners, without whom this encyclopedia
would not have been possible. Alja was firmly and resolutely at the helm
as she steered this book in only a year from invitation to completion. We
are completely indebted to her. We are also grateful to Cindy Clendenon
and Shawn Corridor, who helped coordinate the illustrations and maps
that are essential elements of this encyclopedia. Sharon Malinowski
played an important role in the initial stages of planning and invitation.
It is important for us to recognize the role of Kathy Moreau in the initiation of this project. Kathy encouraged us to develop the plan for the encyclopedia and brought us to New York to meet John Fitzpatrick, senior editor at Charles Scribner’s Sons. The enthusiasm of Kathy and John for this
project led us to move quickly to develop the list of topics and contributors.
Since we both have demanding professional responsibilities at our respective institutions, much of the time that we devoted to this encyclopedia was extracted from our family lives. Our spouses, Doug Campana and
Virginia Bogucki, were generously understanding, as were our children
Mike, Tom, and Robert Campana and Caroline and Marianna Bogucki.
Finally, it is our understanding that Bernard Wailes, professor emeritus of anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, played a key role
in pointing Kathy Moreau in our direction. Bernard played a key role in
both of our careers in archaeology, not only by transferring to us some
small part of his encyclopedic knowledge but also by instilling in us a passion for studying ancient Europe. We would like this encyclopedia to
honor our teacher, mentor, colleague, and friend, Bernard Wailes.
PETER BOGUCKI
PAM J. CRABTREE
OCTOBER 2003

xviii

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


MAPS OF ANCIENT EUROPE,
8000–2000 B.C.
Human geography is an essential dimension of archaeology. The locations that ancient people chose for their settlements, cemeteries, and ritual activities are very important for understanding how European societies developed and declined.
Archaeological sites are found throughout Europe. The maps on the following pages show
the locations of selected sites mentioned in the text and give an overview of their distribution on a large scale. Smaller and more detailed maps accompany many specific articles.
For clarity, we have divided Europe into five major regions: Northwestern Europe, which
covers the British Isles and nearby portions of the Continent; Northern Europe, which includes the North European Plain and Scandinavia; Southwestern Europe, the Iberian
Peninsula and the lands around the western Mediterranean; Southeastern Europe, which includes the Danube Basin and Greece; and Eastern Europe, the area east of the Bug River
and the Carpathians. Areas beyond these maps, such as the Caucasus and Cyprus, are
covered in smaller maps in the relevant articles.
Maps in this volume cover some of the sites mentioned in parts 1 through 4, primarily from
the hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic to the farmers of the Late Neolithic and Copper Age.

xix


M A P S

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

8 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 0

B

.

C

.

Northwestern Europe
and the British Isles,
8000–2000 B.C.
0
0

100
100

Norwegian
Sea
Faroe
Islands

200 mi.
200 km

Shetland
Islands

Barnhouse
Skara Brae

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Orkney
Islands

Outer
Hebrides

Balbridie

Oronsay

Fir
th

of Fo r t h

North Sea

Mt. Sandel
River Bann
Carrowmore
Carrowkeel

Isle of

Man

o
nn

Tre n

t

Swifterbant

er

Hardinxveld
Sittard
Rijckholt

ve

Ko/lnLindenthal
Bruchenbru/cken

R iv

er

S

i
eR

eld
ch Darion

nt

a

Arbon-Bleiche 3
Egolzwil

Cortaillod
Sion-Petit
Chasseur

S

P
L

Lake
Geneva

A

r
Rive
Po

Arene
Candide

r

e

xx

er

Neck

M

ou

ins

ra
Ju

Sa on[ e

Ri

r

ve

Rh o [ ne Rive
r

Vienne River

r
R
lier iver
Al

r

iv e r

Riv
e

r

L. Constance

River

L oi r e

eR
iv

ve

r
Lot R ive

o

nn

er
Riv
se

Dordogne R i

G ar

Bay of
Biscay

ne
Yon

Loire River

Creu

v
ar R i

Noyen

Passy

Grand
Pressigny

ver
Ri

R
ine
Se

Cerny

N

r
Rive
as)
(Ma

er

Barnenez

se
eu
M

iv
eR

er

Cuiry-lesChaudardes
ver
i
R
A is ne R i v e r
se
Oi
ne Riv
M ar

ive

in R
Ma

La Chausse;eTirancourt
Sein

Hoe/dic
Carnac
Te;viec
Gavrinis

R h in e

r

Hazendonk

English Channel

La Hogue Bie

r

e

Bergschenhoek

iv
Ems R

Grimes
Graves

v Windmill
Hill
Se
Tha m es Riv
er
Avebury
Stonehenge
Sweet Track
Hambledon Hill

Celtic Sea

Hu/de

IJsselmeer

n River

a

West Frisian
Islands

R ive
r

n

R ive r S h

Ferriter&s
Cove

East Frisian
Islands

Star Carr

Irish Sea

Mos
ell
e

Newgrange

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


M A P S

Northern Europe,
8000–2000 B.C.

0

100

0

100

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

8 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 0

B

.

C

.

200 mi.
200 km

Slettnes

N

Inari
M

La
in

Lofoten

uo

ni o

io a

Rive
r

n

i ve
Ounas R

/l v e

R
iv

er

Kal
ix

/l
el a

Ang

ve

erm

Sk
ell

n

ve
al/
an

Um
ea

n

eft
en

r

ive

Ke
mi
R

/l
lea
Lu

ve

Pitea
/lven

Vin

d

orne a/l v e n

n
al/ ve

T

r

Norwegian
Sea

n
Altra/sket

Ou
al/ v
e

n

/lve
n

Pyh

lu R
ive

r

Ouluja/r vi
a/ R
ive
r

Le

s

ti
R

Ind

a
Gl a`m

L j us

Ljungan Riv

er

nan Riv
er

Gulf of
Bothnia

r a /l v
Kla

er
Riv

r
ve

en

Ri

Begna

n

La `g
en
R iv

D al

a/l v

e

er

land
Gulf of Fin

Aland Is.

Lake Ma/laren

iver
Otra R

Hiiumaa
Lake
Va/nern

ge
Ska

rra

k

Lake
Va/ttern

Saaremaa

Zvejnieki

Gotland

Gulf of
Riga

Stora Fo/rvar

Dv

Visborg

Jutland

O?land

Ringkloster
Saltbaek Vig
Smakkerup Huse
Zealand
Tybrind Vig Fyn
Sarup
Hjortspring

Vedbåk-Bøgebakken

Skateholm

Rzucewo
Daçbki

Friesack

er
r
e R ive

S

er

E U R O P E

l
aa

Bu
a

l

Do/lauer Heide

Ri
ve
r

.
Bu g R

R.

g Rive r

Ode
r

tu
Vi s

R h ine R i v

A N C I E N T

Narew Ri
Krusza Zamkowa
Brzes;c;
Os¬onki
Kujawski
Sarnowo
Vistu
la R iv er
r
e
v
i
R
a
War t

ver

er

ser
We Riv e r

v
Ems Ri

Hu/de

Ri v

er

El
be

Nem a n River
Courland
Lagoon

Gulf of
Gdan;sk

R.

nds
I sla

IJsselmeer

Darion

Bornholm

Od

sian

iver

S+ventoji

Ru/gen

Siggeneben-Su/d

ina
R

Baltic Sea

Ta`gerup

Limensga`rd

Fr i

Abora

Ajvide

Kattegat

Ertebølle

North
Sea

iv e r

a lsa/lve
n

Krzemionki
Opatowskie

xxi


200 km

N

Perdigo]es

u

B

n

A N C I E N T
Strait of Gibraltar

Ge

Gulf of
Cadâz

Eb
ro
R

Los Millares

n
a i
n t
u
o

Cerro de la
Virgen

Alboran Sea

t i
a e

alquivir River

Guad
Carigu/ela
il R
iv e
r
c M

ia
i

r

Riv
er

s

Juc; ar R i v e r

ic

a

s
land

M

ar

ns

iti

Monte Arci

N S
T A I
U N
M O

R
jerda
Med

iver

s

Tyr rhenian
Sea
Barumini

Sardinia

Elba

ver
A r n o Ri

nn

ine

Val Camonica
Adig
R i v er

Lake
Garda

Ape

Po River

Arene
Candide

Corsica

P

Lake Como

S

Similaun
Glacier

Aichbu/hl

Lake
Constance

Ligurian
Sea

me A

lps

Lake Maggiore

A

Sion-Petit
Chasseur

L

Arbon-Bleiche 3
Egolzwil

Cortaillod

ai

Mediterranean Sea

Minorca

ra n c

t
un

Lake
Geneva

o

Cha[teauneufles-Martigues

Du

Gulf of
Lions

Son Matge
Majorca

Is

Se

Formentera

Iviza

al

River

B

r
ea

c
ri

La Draga

Balma Margineda

LeucateCorre'ge

Jean-Cros

Gazel

ver
Tar n Ri

Lot R i ver

r
ve

S

L A
A T

e lif
Ch

Cova de l&Or

Gulf of
Valencia

e
Ri v

a
le

e
gr

Ba

Se

C

i
Dordo g n e R

E N

E E
S

Adour River

eR
iv

Botiqueria
dels Moros

;r i a

a
ren
Sierra Mo

La Pijotilla

er

Tu

Palmela

C

Ib

ins

ver
Ri

Tagu s River

r
S il R i v e

Los
Canes

nn

Loire River

Vie n ne River
St-Michel-du-Touch
Marizulo
VilleneuveP Y
Tolosane
R
Aizpea

Pico Ramos

Cantabrian Mounta
ins

Bay of

Biscay

ou

a
nt

Muge

n]o

Douro River

Mi

200 mi.

r

Caldeira]o Cave

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

100

100

n
M

C

Vila Nova de Sa]o Pedro
Zambujal

0

0

R iv
er

r
Saon[ e
Ri
ve

Southwestern Europe and
Western Mediterranean,
8000–2000 B.C.

ve

.

ia n
a

B

ad

8 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 0

G

er

o

R iv

G ar
e

la

r
ive
eR

Es

R.

; n River

e

rio

er
Alli

E U R O P E ,

r

A N C I E N T

ar

s
reu

Rh o [ ne Rive
r

M
ra

er
Riv
ine
e
S
ver
ne Ri
Yon

Ju

xxii

O F

eR
.

M A P S
.

E U R O P E


M A P S

N ot e c

er
; Riv

Brzes;c;
Kujawski
Vi
stul
a River

Os¬onki

Sarnowo

e River
Nei ss

Ri

C

R

T

H

Cso…szhalom
Tiszapolga;r

Ri
ve

Danube Riv
er

Riv

r i n a River

D

Bosn
a Rive

a
R iv
e
Lake Ohrid r

Azzolini

nd

M
ts

P.M.
Zarkou

Piana di
Curinga

Rho

dop

Argissa

Lipari

Sesklo

Sicily

Zante

diz

Mts

.

Sea of
Marmara

Lemnos

Aegean Sea
Lesbos
Scyros
Euboea

Cephalonia

Ionian
Sea

Yil

e M
ts.

Dimini

Leuka;s

Grotta
dell&Uzzo

Black
Sea

Tha;sos
Samothrace
ÿmroz

.
Achilleion

Cernavoda
iver
be R
nu
Da
Ovcharovo

Chevdar Ai Bunar
Karanovo
Maritsa Rive
r

us

Konispol
Corfu

Ri v e r

er

Sitagroi

Lake Prespa
Nea
Nikomedeia

Pi

Gulf of
Taranto

ve
r

Ialomiò a

R iv

M O U N TA I N S

iv er

rd
Va

ar

e/ R
i

Arg
e s*

s

Varna

KAN

Lake Scutari

Vj
os

er

S

Passo di Corvo

Tyrrhenian

Sea

r

BAL

i ve

Rudna Glava

lp
n A

r

P

ve
r

i

Selevac

AL

tR

Starc¨evo

Divostin

IC

r

S

Lepenski Vir
Iron Gates Gorges
Vinc=a

aR
um
Str

Se

Tr a n

Gomolava

nia
sylva

iv e

c

R

Cucuteni

ver
Ri

A

er

ES
IN
NTiber Riv

ti

A

Obre

s*
mi
Ti

ava

N
Hvar

a

IN

res)≤ Ri
ver

er
Riv

O lt R

r
ve

D

ri

M aros (Mu
R iv

Mor

i
Vrbas R

E

r

Apuseni
Mts.

er
Sa v a R Vuc=edol
iver
r

iv e

Siret R

ava

Riv e

N

Dr

Kupa River

Ripoli

U
es *

gR

Dn

ies

I

Grotta
dell&Edera

r

Bu

A

Balaton

Riparo Di Romagnano

d

om

O
u
Pr

er

Ra;b a

S

Sou
ther
n

N

T

P

A

N

Mur

r
Ri ve

I

M

Modeval de Sora

P

A

P

r
i ve

S

Similaun Glacier

AP

i ve r

cR

r

V lt a v a River

A

R iv
ter

I nn R

L e ch R
iver

Te¨¨s=etice

Kolomischiina

aje
Dun

Neusiedler
Lake

L

.

r

A

C

Italy, Southeastern Europe,
and the Aegean,
8000–2000 B.C.

R iv er

Bu

S
R . Z¬ota
tula

Vis

Bronocice
Olszanica

er
Riv

Da
nu
be
R iv
r
e
iv
er
R
r
Isa ver
i

.

ve
Ri

Bylany

ava

O h r =e

B

Krzemionki
Opatowskie

Mor

ve
Ri

8 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 0

an

ins
nta
ou
M
e
Vikletice
Or

iver
War ta R

Ri
ve
r

Vah;
R

Saa
le

ver

Do/lauer Heide

re w

E U R O P E ,

g Rive r

Od
er

Na

ive
r

A N C I E N T

Tisza

Elb

eR

O F

Chios
A:ndros Sa;mos
Ikaria

Peloponnesus
Franchthi Cave

Stentinello

Na;xos

Saliagos

Pantelleria

Kos

Melos

Malta

Ggantija
Mnajdra, Hagar Qim, Tarxien

Cythera

Sea of Crete
Crete

N

Rhodes

Ka;rpathos

Knossos

Mediterranean Sea
0
0

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

100
100

200 mi.
200 km

xxiii


M A P S

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

8 0 0 0 – 2 0 0 0

B

.

C

.

N

or

the
rn

Lake Vodla

Dv
i

Eastern Europe,
8000–2000 B.C.

n a Rive
r

Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik
Lake
Onega

r
Svi

Lake Lacha

iver
&R

N

Lake Vozhe
a

Lake
Ladoga
Gulf of Finland

Su

Su

ve r

Lake Beloye

er
Riv

River

a
Ri

ov R
i

d

er

Volk
h

v

st a
M

ve
a Ri r
log

Rybinsk Reservoir

v er

e

Ri v

Vy
a

tk a

R i ve
r

a

Moscow Riv

Oka

Volg

Ri

ve

r

Un

zha

r

Ri

Lake Il&men&
Lake Pskov

Mo

Lake Peipus

k

n
ho

L u za

R
Volga

ver
Ri

r
i ve

R
ra
Su

er

i ve

er River
Dniep

r

h R
ive

Tsna Rive r

er
Oka R i v

iver
arezin a R
By

r

Soz

Voronezh Ri
ver

ats& River

iv

er

Pry py

D e sn

Sey m River

aR

Vorona R
iver

Pinsk Marshes

er R
Khop

Oskol Rive r

Tripolye

ive

r

Sou
the
r

Do

n
g
Bu

Inh
Vladimirovka

Do

Dereivka

nR

iv e r

Akhtu
ba
R

n et
s Ri
ver

Pr

ver

i

River
ut

Siret Riv

Don R

er

Usatovo
Lake Manych

Sea of
Azov

0

iver
a n& R
Kub

ver

Crimea
Ri

Ca

D a nube

Ovcharovo
Varna

xxiv

i

r
ve

ts River
ule

r
ve
Ri

Cucuteni

ver
ter Ri
es

Dn
i

Dni
epe
rR
ive
r

Volg a R
iver

Kolomischiina

Black Sea

uc

asu

s M
oun
t

0

100
100

200 mi.

200 km

ains

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT
EUROPE, 8000–1000 B.C.
Archaeologists need to make sense of how the archaeological record fits together in time
and space. A simple tool for organizing this information is a chronological chart, which can
be thought of as a timeline running vertically, with the oldest developments at the bottom
and the most recent at the top. The vertical lines indicate the duration of cultures and people, whose date of first appearance is indicated by the label at the bottom of the line. The
horizontal lines indicate cultures and events that spanned more than one geographic region.
Historical events or milestones appear in boldface type.
The following chronological chart traces the development of ancient society in Europe from
the hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic period to the end of the Neolithic or the Copper Age,
between about 8000 and 2000 B . C ., over six principal regions of Europe: Eastern,
Southeastern, Central, Southwestern, Northwestern, and Northern. The chart also includes
some events up to 1000 B . C ., foreshadowing developments covered in volume II. Key developments (such as the earliest appearance of agriculture in each area), important archaeological cultures (such as Linearbandkeramik and Corded Ware), and special types of
sites (such as megalithic tombs) are shown. The chronological chart should be used in conjunction with the individual articles on these topics to give the reader a sense of the larger
picture across Europe and through time.

xxv


C H R O N O L O G Y

DATE

1000 B.C.

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

8 0 0 0 – 1 0 0 0

SOUTHEASTERN
EUROPE

B

.

C

.

EASTERN
EUROPE

CENTRAL
EUROPE

Iron use appears

Urnfields

Timber Grave culture
Development of
steppe pastoralism
Otomani culture

Mycenae

2000 B.C.

Tumulus Middle
Bronze Age

chariot use

Knossos

Fatyanovo culture

Nagyrev culture

Únetice culture
Early Bronze Age

Bell Beaker culture

CORDED WARE CULTURE
Minoan
civilization

Early evidence for
bronze metallurgy

catacomb graves
Globular Amphora
culture

3000 B.C.
The Iceman
horse riding
Baden culture

Yamnaya
(Pit Grave culture)

SECONDARY PRODUCTS REVOLUTION

4000 B.C.

Tiszapolgár
Earliest traces of culture
copper metallurgy

Swiss lake Michelsberg
culture
dwellings

horse
Sredny Stog

domestication culture

Lengyel culture
Rössen culture

5000 B.C.
CucuteniTripolye culture
Neolithic Linearbandkeramik
(LBK) farmers spread

Vinca culture

6000 B.C.

Starcevo – Körös – Cris¸
farmers in northern Balkans

Dnieper-Donets
culture
Bug-Dniester

First farmers
appear in Greece
and Crete

7000 B.C.

Iron Gates
Mesolithic sites

8000 B.C.

xxvi

Mesolithic hunter-gatherers

Mesolithic foragers

Mesolithic hunter-gatherers

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C H R O N O L O G Y

NORTHERN
EUROPE

Burial cairns

NORTHWESTERN
EUROPE

O F

A N C I E N T

SOUTHWESTERN

EUROPE

Stonehenge
at its zenith

Wessex culture

Argaric Bronze Age

BELL BEAKER CULTURE

B

.

C

.

DATE

1000

B.C.

2000

B.C.

3000

B.C.

4000

B.C.

5000

B.C.

Boat-Axe culture
Construction starts
at Stonehenge
gallery graves

Pitted Ware
culture

8 0 0 0 – 1 0 0 0

Coffin burials

Early Bronze Age

Single grave
culture

E U R O P E ,

Iberian Copper Age

megalithic tombs
passage graves

Funnel Beaker farmers
appear in Northern Europe

Early farming
in British Isles
Rhine-Maas
delta Neolithic

Malta temple
construction
begins

passage graves
Chasséen culture
long barrows

LBK farmers in Benelux,
Northeastern France
Farmers using
Cardial-Impressed
pottery in Mediterranean
Basin and Iberia

Ertebølle Late Mesolithic

Late Mesolithic foragers

6000 B.C.
Kongemose Mesolithic foragers

Maglemosian Mesolithic foragers

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

Early Mesolithic foragers

Mesolithic foragers

7000

B.C.

8000

B.C.

xxvii