Encyclopedia of barbarian world and ancient europe 8000 BC to AD 1000 II

Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000: Encyclopedia of the Barbarian World
Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree, Editors in Chief

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Ancient Europe 8000 B.C.–A.D. 1000 : encyclopedia of the Barbarian
world / Peter Bogucki, Pam J. Crabtree, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-684-80668-1 (set : hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN
0-684-80669-X (vol. 1) — ISBN 0-684-80670-3 (vol. 2) — ISBN
0-684-31421-5 (e-book)
1. Antiquities, Prehistoric—Europe—Encyclopedias. 2. Prehistoric
peoples—Europe—Encyclopedias. 3. History, Ancient—Encyclopedias. 4.
Europe—History—To 476—Encyclopedias. 5.
Europe—History—392-814—Encyclopedias. I. Bogucki, Peter I. II.
Crabtree, Pam J.
D62 .A52 2004
936—dc22

2003015251

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CONTENTS

VOLUME I
■

List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000–
2000 B.C.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Chronology of Ancient Europe, 8000–
1000 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix

■

1: DISCOVERING BARBARIAN EUROPE

Introduction (Peter Bogucki and Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Humans and Environments (I. G. Simmons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Origins and Growth of European Prehistory (Paul G. Bahn) . . . . . 14
The Nature of Archaeological Data (Pam J. Crabtree and
Douglas V. Campana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Tollund Man (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Survey and Excavation (Albert Ammerman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Saltbæk Vig (Anne Birgitte Gebauer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Dating and Chronology (Martin Bridge) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Archaeology and Environment (Petra Dark) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Settlement Patterns and Landscapes (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Trade and Exchange (Robert H. Tykot) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Status and Wealth (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Hochdorf (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Gender (Janet E. Levy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Ritual and Ideology (John Chapman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Hjortspring (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Archaeology and Language (David W. Anthony) . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

vii


C O N T E N T S

Warfare and Conquest (Lawrence H. Keeley and Russell S. Quick) . . 110
Maiden Castle (Niall Sharples) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

■

2: POSTGLACIAL FORAGERS, 8000–4000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Postglacial Environmental Transformation (Neil Roberts) . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Northern Europe (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . .
Skateholm (Lars Larsson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tybrind Vig (Søren H. Andersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Northwest Europe (Christopher Tolan-Smith) .
Mount Sandel (Peter C. Woodman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Star Carr (Paul Mellars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Iberia (João Zilhão) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Muge Shell Middens (João Zilhão) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Upland Central and Southern Europe
(Barbara Voytek). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Gates Mesolithic (Clive Bonsall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Franchthi Cave (Julie M. Hansen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Mesolithic of Eastern Europe (Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . .
Oleneostrovskii Mogilnik (Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . . . . .

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■

3: TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE, 7000–4000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Crops of the Early Farmers (Julie M. Hansen) . . . . . . . . . .
Livestock of the Early Farmers (Nerissa Russell) . . . . . . . . .
First Farmers of Europe (Curtis Runnels) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Achilleion (Ernestine S. Elster) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Last Hunters and First Farmers on Cyprus (Alan H.
Simmons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transition to Farming in the Balkans (Mihael Budja) . . . . . .
Obre (Mihael Budja) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Farming Frontier on the Southern Steppes
(David W. Anthony). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spread of Agriculture Westward across the Mediterranean
(William K. Barnett) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arene Candide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Caldeirão Cave (João Zilhão). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
First Farmers of Central Europe (Lawrence H. Keeley and
Mark Golitko) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bruchenbrücken (Detlef Gronenborn) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bylany (Jonathan Last) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beginnings of Farming in Northwestern Europe (Anne Tresset)
Neolithic Sites of the Orkney Islands (Peter Bogucki) . . . .
Hambledon Hill (Roger Mercer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

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A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Transition to Farming along the Lower Rhine and Meuse
(Leendert P. Louwe Kooijmans) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transition to Agriculture in Northern Europe (Anne Birgitte
Gebauer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sarup (Niels H. Andersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long Barrow Cemeteries in Neolithic Europe (Magdalena S.
Midgley). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . 286
. . 293
. . 301
. . 304

■

4: CONSEQUENCES OF AGRICULTURE, 5000–2000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Early Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe (William A. Parkinson) .
Early Copper Mines at Rudna Glava and Ai Bunar (William
A. Parkinson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Milk, Wool, and Traction: Secondary Animal Products
(Nerissa Russell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Southeastern Europe (William A.
Parkinson) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Varna (Douglass W. Bailey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ovcharovo (Douglass W. Bailey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Copper Age Cyprus (Edgar Peltenburg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Eastern Europe (Malcolm Lillie) . . .
Domestication of the Horse (David W. Anthony) . . . . . . . .
Kolomischiina (Malcolm Lillie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Central Europe (Sarunas
Milisauskas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brzes´c´ Kujawski (Peter Bogucki). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rondels of the Carpathians (Magdalena S. Midgley) . . . . . . .
Neolithic Lake Dwellings in the Alpine Region (Jörg Schibler,
Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice Choyke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Iceman (Paul G. Bahn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arbon-Bleiche 3 (Jörg Schibler, Stefanie Jacomet, and Alice
Choyke) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Megalithic World (I. G. N. Thorpe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Avebury (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barnenez (Serge Cassen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boyne Valley Passage Graves (George Eogan) . . . . . . . . . . .
Trackways and Boats (Malcolm Lillie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Consequences of Farming in Southern Scandinavia
(Magdalena S. Midgley) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pitted Ware and Related Cultures of Neolithic Northern Europe

(Marek Zvelebil) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ajvide (Peter Rowley-Conwy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic Italy and Southern France (Caroline Malone) . . . .
Sion-Petit Chasseur (Marie Besse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Neolithic Temples of Malta (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . .
Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia (Katina T. Lillios) . . . . . . . .
Los Millares (Robert Chapman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

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ix


C O N T E N T S

Corded Ware from East to West (Janusz Czebreszuk) . . . . . . . . . 467
Bell Beakers from West to East (Janusz Czebreszuk) . . . . . . . . . . 476

VOLUME II
■

List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.–
A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Chronology of Ancient Europe, 2000 B.C.–
A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

■

5: MASTERS OF METAL, 3000–1000 B.C.

Introduction (Peter Bogucki) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The Significance of Bronze (Mark Pearce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Temperate Southeastern
Europe (H. Arthur Bankoff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Central Europe (Vajk
Szeverenyi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Spisˇsky´ Sˇtvrtok (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
The Italian Bronze Age (Mark Pearce). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Poggiomarino (Francesco Menotti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
El Argar and Related Bronze Age Cultures of the Iberian
Peninsula (Antonio Gilman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Sardinia’s Bronze Age Towers (Emma Blake) . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Bronze Age Britain and Ireland (Joanna Brück) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Stonehenge (Caroline Malone) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Flag Fen (Francis Pryor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Irish Bronze Age Goldwork (Mary Cahill) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Bronze Age Scandinavia (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Bronze Age Coffin Burials (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Bronze Age Cairns (Helle Vandkilde) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Late Bronze Age Urnfields of Central Europe (Peter Bogucki). . . . . 86
Bronze Age Herders of the Eurasian Steppes (David W. Anthony) . . 92
Bronze Age Transcaucasia (Laura A. Tedesco) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Bronze Age Cyprus (A. Bernard Knapp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Minoan World (David B. Small) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Knossos (Louise Steel) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Mycenaean Greece (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

■

6: THE EUROPEAN IRON AGE, C. 800 B.C.–A.D. 400

Introduction (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

x

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Celts (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hallstatt and La Tène (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Celtic Migrations (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Germans (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oppida (John Collis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manching (Susan Malin-Boyce) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hillforts (Barry Raftery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Origins of Iron Production (Michael N. Geselowitz) . . . . . . . .
Ironworking (Michael N. Geselowitz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coinage of Iron Age Europe (Colin Haselgrove) . . . . . . . . . .
Ritual Sites: Viereckschanzen (Matthew L. Murray) . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Feasting (Bettina Arnold). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
La Tène Art (Barry Raftery) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Social Organization (Ian Ralston) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greek Colonies in the West (Peter S. Wells) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vix (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Greek Colonies in the East (Gocha R. Tsetskhladze) . . . . . . . .
Iron Age France (John Collis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gergovia (John Collis). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Iron Age Britain (Timothy Champion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Danebury (Barry Cunliffe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Ireland (Bernard Wailes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Irish Royal Sites (Bernard Wailes). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Germany (Bettina Arnold) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kelheim (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Heuneburg (Bettina Arnold). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iberia in the Iron Age (Teresa Chapa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Etruscan Italy (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Roman Iron Age Scandinavia (Sophia Perdikaris) . . . . . . .
Iron Age Finland (Deborah J. Shepherd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biskupin (A. F. Harding). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Ukraine and European Russia (Gocha R. Tsetskhladze) .
Iron Age East-Central Europe (Peter S. Wells). . . . . . . . . . . .
Iron Age Caucasia (Adam T. Smith) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dark Age Greece (John Bintliff) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7: EARLY MIDDLE AGES/MIGRATION PERIOD

Introduction (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emporia (John Moreland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ipswich (Keith Wade) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Harbors and Trading Sites (Dan Carlsson) . . .
Dark Ages, Migration Period. Early Middle Ages (Pam J.
Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
History and Archaeology (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . .
State Formation (Tina L. Thurston). . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trade and Exchange (Tina L. Thurston) . . . . . . . . . . .

A N C I E N T

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C O N T E N T S

Coinage of the Early Middle Ages (Alan M. Stahl). . . . . . . .
Gender in Early Medieval Europe (Christine Flaherty). . . . . .
Animal Husbandry (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Agriculture (Peter Murphy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mills and Milling Technology (Colin Rynne) . . . . . . . . .
Migration Period Peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . .
Baiuvarii (Thomas Fischer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dál Riata (Elizabeth A. Ragan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Goths between the Baltic and Black Seas
(Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Huns (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Langobards (Neil Christie) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merovingian Franks (Bailey K. Young) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ostrogoths (Karen Carr) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Picts (Colleen E. Batey) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rus (Rae Ostman). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Saami (Lars Ivar Hansen and Bjørnar Olsen) . . . . . . . . .

Scythians (Jan Chochorowski). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slavs and the Early Slav Culture (Micha1 Parczewski) . . . .
Vikings (Sophia Perdikaris). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visigoths (Karen Carr). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Ships (Ole Crumlin-Pedersen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jewelry (Nancy L. Wicker) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boats and Boatbuilding (D. M. Goodburn). . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clothing and Textiles (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Settlements in Iceland and Greenland (Thomas H.
McGovern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hofstaðir (Thomas H. McGovern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Settlements in Orkney and Shetland (Gerald F. Bigelow)
Early Christian Ireland (Terry Barry) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clonmacnoise (Heather A. King) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Raths, Crannogs, and Cashels (James W. Boyle) . . . . . . . . . .
Deer Park Farms (C. J. Lynn) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking Dublin (Patrick F. Wallace) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dark Age/Early Medieval Scotland (Elizabeth A. Ragan) . . .
Tarbat (Martin Carver) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Medieval Wales (Harold Mytum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anglo-Saxon England (Genevieve Fisher) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spong Hill (Catherine Hills). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sutton Hoo (Martin Carver) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
West Stow (Pam J. Crabtree) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Winchester (Martin Biddle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viking York (P. V. Addyman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merovingian France (Bailey K. Young) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tomb of Childeric (Bailey K. Young). . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Medieval Iberia (David Yoon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Viking and Viking Age Norway (Sophia Perdikaris) . . . . .

Pre-Viking and Viking Age Sweden (Nancy L. Wicker) . . . . .

xii

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356
361
366
371
376
380
381
384
386

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388
391
393
396
402
403
406
408
411
414
417
419
423
426
430
433

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436
442
445
450
456
460
462
466
469
476
480
489
496
498
500
501
508
511
519
525
533
537

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C O N T E N T S

Pre-Viking and Viking Age Denmark (Tina L. Thurston)
Finland (Deborah J. Shepherd) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poland (Przemys1aw Urban´czyk) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Russia/Ukraine (Rae Ostman). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Staraya Ladoga (Rae Ostman) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hungary (László Bartosiewicz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Czech Lands/Slovakia (Petr Meduna) . . . . . . . . . . .
Germany and the Low Countries (Peter S. Wells) . . . . .
Southern Germany (Thomas Fischer) . . . . . . . . . . . .

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542
548
554
563
568
572
580
586
593

■

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

xiii


MAPS

VOLUME I

Maps of Ancient Europe, 8000–2000 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix–xxiv
European and Mediterranean obsidian sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Selected sites in Mesolithic Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Selected sites where remains of wild and domesticated grains
have been found . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Ranges of the wild ancestors of early livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
The concentration of sites in eastern and central Neolithic
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Selected sites in the western Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Extent of Linearbandkeramik settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Selected sites of Copper Age Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Distribution of civilizations and selected Cucuteni-Tripolye sites . . 355
Selected Neolithic lake dwellings in the Swiss Alpine region . . . 386

Selected sites in southern Scandinavia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Selected sites in Late Neolithic/Copper Age Iberia . . . . . . . . . . 457
Extent of Bell Beakers in Europe, the earliest dates of their
appearance, and their provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

VOLUME II

Maps of Ancient Europe, 3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000 . . . . . . . . . . xvii–xxii
Tin deposits in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Principal trade routes of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages . . . . . 28
Poggiomarino, Italy, and environs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Selected sites in southeast Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Eurasia about 2000 B.C. showing general location of selected
cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Bronze Age Transcaucasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Selected sites in Bronze Age Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Minoan Crete and selected sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Some of the principal oppida in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

xv


M A P S

VOLUME II

Iron production sites from 800 to 400 B.C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution of Greek pottery of the fourth quarter of the sixth
century B.C. (not including east Greek pottery). . . . . . . .
The Black Sea region with major Greek colonies and local

peoples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in Iron Age France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in Iron Age Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected hillforts in the West Hallstatt Zone in southwest
Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites and selected populi of Iron Age Iberia . . . . . . . . .
Provinces and traditional cultural regions of Finland . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites and major polities in Bronze Age and Iron Age
Caucasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main emporia (wics) of northwest Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some Viking harbors and towns in the Baltic Sea region. . . . . . .
Major copper sources and oxhide ingot findspots . . . . . . . . . . .
Key sites and kindred territories of early Dál Riata . . . . . . . . . .
Extent of the Wielbark culture during the third century A.D. and
second half of the fourth century A.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The traditional view of Syagrius’s kingdom, stretching across most
of northern Gaul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extent of Ostrogothic migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General extent of Pictland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of Slavs in the beginning of sixth century A.D. in light
of written sources and of archaeological data . . . . . . . . .
Extent of Visigothic migrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Scotland in the mid-sixth century and c. A.D. 900 . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in early medieval Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected sites in early medieval Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selected Pre-Viking and Viking Age sites in Denmark . . . . . . . .
Early medieval towns in Russia, Scandinavia,
and Byzantium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Early Migration period population movements. . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Czech lands from the arrival of the Slavs to the beginnings

of the Czech Premyslide state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General features of southern Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xvi

165
199
209
213
233
243
254
277
304
325
335
352
387
389
397
402
404
415
420
470
481
526
543
564
573

582
594

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


MAPS OF ANCIENT EUROPE,
3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000
Human geography is an essential dimension of archaeology. The locations that ancient people chose for their settlements, cemeteries, and ritual activities are very important for understanding how European societies developed and declined.
Archaeological sites are found throughout Europe. The maps on the following pages show
the locations of selected sites mentioned in the text and give an overview of their distribution on a large scale. Smaller and more detailed maps accompany many specific entries.
For clarity, we have divided Europe into five major regions: Northwestern Europe, which
covers the British Isles and nearby portions of the Continent; Northern Europe, which includes the North European Plain and Scandinavia; Southwestern Europe, the Iberian
Peninsula and the lands around the western Mediterranean; Southeastern Europe, which includes the Danube Basin and Greece; and Eastern Europe, the area east of the Bug River
and the Carpathians. Areas beyond these maps, such as the Caucasus and Cyprus, are
covered in smaller maps in the relevant articles.
Maps in this volume cover some of the sites mentioned in parts 5 through 7, from the Bronze
Age to the Early Middle Ages.

xvii


M A P S

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

3 0 0 0

B

.

C

. –

A

.

.

D

1 0 0 0

Northwestern Europe
and the British Isles,
3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000
0
0

100
100

Norwegian
Sea
Faroe
Islands

200 mi.
200 km

Shetland
Islands
Jarlshof

Birsay

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

Orkney
Islands

Outer
Hebrides
Tarbat

Iona
Dunadd Fi

Dundurn
r th

of Fo r t h

North Sea

Deer Park Farms
River Bann
Emain Macha

Isle of
Man

Irish Sea

Tr

Flag Fen

Ipswich
Longbury Bank Llawhaden
v
St. Albans
Se
Camulodunum
Margam
Dinas Powys
Brooklands
Llantwit Major
Stonehenge Taplow
Sea
Danebury

Winchester
Hamwic
Maiden Castle

Dorestad

R h in e
er

Quentovic

R iv

R
ld e
he
Sc
Tournai

English Channel

as) Ri ver
(Ma

er

R
ine
Se

eR

Heuneburg
L. Constance

r
ive

Sa

M

r

o

t
un

ai

ns
La Te'ne

Ju

ra

R
lier iver

Al

er
Riv
se

Vienne River

Mont
Beuvray¶
Bibracte

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Fellbach-Schmiden

o [n

River

iv e r

ne
Yon

L oi r e

Riv
e

River

kar

use
Me

iv
eR

Loire River

Creu

Vix

in R
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r
Hillesheim
r
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v
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r Titelberg
ver A isne Riv e
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se Choisy-au-Bac
i
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Harrouard
M ar

N

r

er

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Spong Hill
West Stow
Sutton Hoo

er

Mt. Gabriel

Feddersen Wierde

ent

Mos
ell
e

Moel Trigarn

Llanbedrgoch
Caernarfon
Graeanog

East Frisian
Islands

West Frisian
Islands

ive
Ems R

Plas Gogerddan

York

Anglesey
R ive
r

o

Capel
Eithen
Du;n Ailinne

iv

R ive r S

n
han

Dublin

n River

n

Clonmacnoise

S

Lake
Geneva

P

eR
iv

r

r
Lot R ive

o

nn

ve

L

A

G ar

Dordogne R i

Rh o [ ne Rive
r

Gergovia

Bay of
Biscay

r
Rive

Po

e

r

xviii

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


M A P S

Northern Europe,
3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000

0

100

0

100

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

3 0 0 0

B

.

. –

C

A

.

D

.

1 0 0 0

200 mi.
200 km

N

Inari

Vestera``len

Lofoten

M

La
in

uo

ni o

io a

Rive
r

n

i ve
Ounas R

/l v e

R
iv

er

Kal
ix

/l
el a

Ang

ve

erm

ve
al/
an

n

Sk
ell

n

Um
ea

eft
en

r

ive

Ke
mi
R

/l
lea
Lu

ve

Pitea
/lven

Vin
d

orne a/l v e n

n
al/ ve

T

r

Norwegian
Sea

n

Ou
al/ v
e

n

/lve
n

Pyh

lu R
ive
r

Ouluja/r vi
a/ R
ive
r

Le

s

ti
R

Trondheim
(Nidaros)

Ind

a
Gl a`m

L j us

Ljungan Riv

Varikkoniemi
n

r
ve
La `g
en

R iv
er

iver
Otra R

Lake
Va/nern

rra

k

Lake
Va/ttern

North
Sea

Borum Eshøj

Tollund

Jelling
Hodde
Roskilde
Egtved
Zealand
Ribe
Fyn
Drengsted
Hjortspring

iver

Nem a n River
Courland
Lagoon

Gulf of
Gdan;sk

Als
Ru/gen

Truso
Wolin
r

Narew Ri

r
e R ive

er

S

er

.
Bu g R
Bu
a

R.

g Rive r

iver
War ta R

Riv

ul

R h ine R i v

E U R O P E

a

al

Holzhausen

Ri
ve
r

la

t
Vi s

Ode
r

Vi
su

t

Biskupin

er

A N C I E N T

ina
R

Baltic Sea

Bornholm

ser
We Riv e r

v
Ems Ri

Dorestad

Dv

ver

IJsselmeer

Gulf of
Riga

Eketorp

R.

sian

Feddersen
Wierde
El
be
Ri v
e

Hiiumaa

er

Fr i

nds
I sla

Lo/ddeko/pinge
`
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Trelleborg

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(Haithabu)

land
Gulf of Fin

Saaremaa
Broa
Gotland
Torsburgen
Paviken
Fro/jel
Ugga`rde Ro/jr
Skedemosse
Ismanstorp
O?land

Kattegat
Jutland

Gulf of
Bothnia

Aland Is.
e
a/l v
D al Vendel
Valsga/rde

Lake Ma/laren Gamla Uppsala
Sigtuna
Tuna
Hundhamra
Adelso/
Helgo/
Birka

Kaupang

ge
Ska

er

nan Riv
er

en

Ri

Hamar

iv e r

a lsa/lve
n

r a /l v

Kla

er
Riv

Begna

Gene

xix


0

0

200 km

B

Ge

A N C I E N T
Strait of Gibraltar

Gulf of
Cadâz

i n
t a

n
o uEl Argar

Cerro de la
Virgen

Alb o ran Se a

t i
ae

Co; rdoba
alqu iv ir Rive r
Gu ad
ni
lR
iv e
r
c M

s

Ju ; car Riv e r

B

Iviza

l

r
ea

ic

c

I

a

S
L A
A T

Gu lf o f
Lio n s

Du

Minorca

M

it i

m e Al p s

A I N S
U N T

O
M

S
Lake Com o

Ape

Po Rive r

a
je rd
Me d

r
Rive

Sardinia

Corsica

Elba

Ad ig

ine

s

R iv e r

Ty rrh e n ian
Se a

Torquinia

Poggio
Civitate

Volterra

er
Arn o Riv

nn

Lake
Garda

Val Camonica

L

P

Lig u ria n
S e a Popolonium

Mont Bego

ar

Me d it e rran e an Se a

Majorca

s

M
Massalia

ra n c

Emporion (Ampurias)

nd
sl a

Se

er
Tarn Riv

Formentera

Ba

e
al

i
ar

ve r
lif Ri
Ch e

Gulf of
Valencia

e
gr

Aldovesta

Se

e
Riv

PY
RE
N E
ES

Riv
er

ria
Tu ;

Râotinto
Mines

s

na

ou
ai n
nt

re
Si e r r a M o

er

i

Ri
v

r

Lo t Ri ve r

A

Lake Maggiore

La Te' ne

.

Tag u s Riv e r

Eb
ro

M

D

Ulaca

ia

Aguilar de
Anguita

er

eR
iv

Ad o u r Rive r

nn

Vie n ne Rive r

iv
Do rd o g n e R

er

Gergovia

nt

Lake
Geneva

ou

L. Constance

.

Las Cogotas

C

Ib

n

A

La Mesa de
Miranda

r
Sil Riv e

Cant abri an Mount a
ins

Bay of
Biscay

Mont Beuvray¶ Bibracte
C

s
ai n

Heuneburg

. –

er

Do u ro Rive r

]o
Min

200 mi.

Lo ire Rive r

R. Vix¶
Mont Lassois

C

N

Santa Tecla

ATLA N TIC
O CEA N

100

100

Riv
er

Southwestern Europe and
Western Mediterranean,
3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000

o
Gar
e

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aR
iv

r
ive
eR

B

an

Rh o [ n e Riv
er

s
re u

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3 0 0 0

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rR
Allie .

E U R O P E ,

Es
la

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er
ar
rio
; n Rive r

A N C I E N T

r

r

eR
ive

e
Sao [ n

n
Yo n

a

xx
ive r
eR

Ju
r

in
Se

O F

eR
.

M A P S
1 0 0 0

E U R O P E


M A P S

D

.

1 0 0 0

Italy, Southeastern Europe,
and the Aegean,
3000 B.C.–A.D. 1000

P

Kiev

r

KAN

i ve r

Ri
ve

Danube Riv
er
r i n a River
D

Ialomiò a

R iv

iver
be R
nu
Da

Black
Sea

Maritsa Rive
r

Rho

iv er

rd
Va

R iv
e
Lake Ohrid r

Ri v e r

er

MOU N TAIN S

Lake Scutari

a

i ve

Bosn
a Rive

i

Riv

tR

BAL

S

S

P

dop

e M
ts

Y il
.

diz

Lake Prespa

Poggiomarino

Aegean Se a

ou

C orfu

.

Lemnos

M

Gulf of
Taranto

us

ve
r

Mts

Sea of
Marmara

T ha;sos
Samothrace
ÿmroz

nd

e/ R
i

Pi

Vj

os

r

er

u
Pr

N
Arg
e s*

s

r

AL

iv e

Siret R

I

y

Alp

ian

lvan

iv e

IC

gR

A

T rans

ar

Tyrrhenian
Sea

ve
r

T

res)≤ Ri
ver

er
Riv

s*
mi

Ti

R

er

O lt R

A

Riv

Apuseni
Mts.

er

IN

es *

N

r

Bu

Dn
ies

U

aR
um
Str

Se

om

O

S

c

M

M aros (Mu
R iv

Sou
ther
n

N

ver
Ri

A

er

ti

A

ava

ES
IN
N Tiber Riv

Acquarossa
Torquinia
Veio
Rome

Hvar

I

Spis=sky;
S+tvrtok

Mor

r
i ve

Vrbas R

N

D

a

H

Sav a R
iver
r

E

ri

T

r
i ve

S

ava

aje
Dun

A

By;c=â Ska;la
Nitra
Smolenice-Molpir

Waschenberg
Neusiedler
Hallstatt
Lake
er
er
v
i
R
Mur
a
b
;
Ra
Balaton

d

iver
la R

Tisza

A

R
Vah;
R

r

nube River
Da

Kupa River

Poggio
Civitate

.

cR

Stare; Hradisko

Mikulc=ice

Dr

P

A

R iv

ter

I nn R

Vist u

Tillmitsch

AP

. –

C

r

Ms=ecke; Z+ehrovice

er
Riv

L e ch R
iver

Bu

.

S

ve
Ri

P

R iv er

r

iver
War ta R

Ri
ve
r

ava

L

re w

s

O h r =e
Bopfingen-Flochberg
Kelheim
Manching
er PlattlingPankofen
r Riv

Isa ver
i

A

iv e

B

ve
Ri

tain

aR

3 0 0 0

an

n
ou

V lt a v a River

ver

Saa
le

Holzhausen

ul

Mor

eM

e River
Nei ss

Or

Ri

Vi

E U R O P E ,

g Rive r

Od
er

er
; Riv
Biskupin

st

N ot e c

A N C I E N T

Na

ive
r

C

Elb
eR

O F

nt
ai
ns

Lesbos
Scyros

Leuka;s

Euboea

C ephalonia

Ionian

Sea

Sicily

Zante

C hios
A:ndros Sa;mos
Ikaria

Peloponnesus
Tyrins

Na;xos

Mycenae
Pantelleria

Pylos

Kos

Melos
C ythera
Malta

Sea of Cre te
C rete

N

Knossos
Phaistos

Rhodes

Ka;rpathos

Malia
Zakros
Gournia

Mediterranean Sea
0
0

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E

100
100

200 mi.
200 km

xxi


M A P S

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

3 0 0 0

B

.

. –

C

A

.

.

D

1 0 0 0

N

or

the
rn

Lake Vodla

Lake
Onega

r
Svi

&

ve r

o
kh

n

River
Luza

er
Riv

Ri

ov R

i

d

a

Volk
h

v

er

ve
a Ri r
log

Rybinsk Reservoir
e

r

v er

zha

Ri

Mo

st a
M

Ryurik
Gorodishche

Lake Il&men&

Su

Lake Beloye
Beloozero

Staraya Ladoga

Novgorod
Lake Pskov

N

Lake Vozhe

Su

Lake Peipus

Lake Lacha

r
Rive

Gulf of Finland

Eastern Europe,
3000 B.C.–
A.D. 1000

n a Rive
r

a

Lake
Ladoga

Dv
i

Ri v

Vy
a

tk a

R i ve
r

a

Moscow Riv

i ve

h R
ive

r

Tsna Rive r

r

e
Oka R i v

Soz

r

iver
arezin a R
By

Dnieper Rive

r
i ve

er

Voronezh Ri
ver

iv

er

ats& River

D e sn

Sey m River

aR

Vorona R
iver

Pinsk Marshes
Pry py

R
Volga

ver
Ri

R
ra

Su

r

Gnezdovo
Smolensk

Oka

Volg

Ri

ve

r

Un

Izborsk

er R
Khop

Oskol Rive r

Kiev

ive

Do
n
g
Bu

iv e r

Akhtu
ba
R
n et
s Ri
ver

i

Ri

r
ve

ver

i

Do

nR

r

ve

t
Pru

ts River
ule

r
ve
Ri

Inh

ver
ter Ri
es

Dn
i

Dni
epe
rR
ive
r

Volg a R
iver

r

Sou
the
r

Siret Riv

Don R

Olbia

er

Lake Manych

Sea of
Azov

0

Panticapaeum
an
Kub

Ri

ver

C rimea

D a nube

Chersonesus

Black Sea

xxii

Ca

uc

asu

& River

0

s M
oun
tai

100
100

200 mi.
200 km

ns

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT
EUROPE, 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1000
Archaeologists need to make sense of how the archaeological record fits together in time
and space. A simple tool for organizing this information is a chronological chart, which can
be thought of as a timeline running vertically, with the oldest developments at the bottom
and the most recent at the top. The vertical lines indicate the duration of cultures and people, whose date of first appearance is indicated by the label at the bottom of the line. The
horizontal lines indicate cultures and events that spanned more than one geographic region.
Historical events or milestones appear in boldface type.
During the last two millennia

B.C.

and the first millennium

A . D .,

the archaeological record in

Europe gets progressively more detailed. The broad developments of the earlier period discussed in volume I now take on greater specificity in time and space. For that reason, the
following chronological chart is organized somewhat differently from the one in volume I: instead of large regions, it is now necessary to view the past in terms of particular countries
or smaller regions and in 500-year increments. The chronological chart should be used in
conjunction with the individual articles on these topics to give the reader a sense of the
larger picture across Europe and through time.

xxiii

C H R O N O L O G Y

DATE

O F

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E ,

IRELAND

A.D. 1000

2 0 0 0

.

B

C

. –

A

BRITAIN

.

D

.

1 0 0 0

FRANCE/
BELGIUM/
SWITZERLAND

Norman conquest
A.D. 1066
Viking Age

Ottonian/Holy Roman Empire

Late Saxon period
EMPORIA

early
monasteries

A.D. 500

GERMANY

Carolingian Dynastsy
Charlemagne

crowned

Carolingian empire

Merovingian Franks

Merovingian Franks

Roman period

Roman Iron Age/Roman period

Middle Saxon period
Early Saxon period

Early Christian period

A.D. 1

Late Iron Age

Roman period
Late Iron Age
OPPIDA

Irish
royal sites
Middle Iron Age

500

Middle Iron Age
La Tène period

La Tène period

B.C.
hillforts

Early Iron Age hillforts

Greek
colonies
established

Early Iron Age
Hallstatt period

Hallstatt period

Late Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

1000 B.C.
Late Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

1500 B.C.
Middle Bronze Age

2000 B.C.

xxiv

Early Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


C H R O N O L O G Y

SCANDINAVIA

POLAND

O F

A N C I E N T

RUSSIA/
UKRAINE

E U R O P E ,

2 0 0 0

B

.

IBERIA

C

. –

A

.

D

Formation of early
Polish state

1 0 0 0

DATE

A.D.
Settlement of
Iceland and
Greenland
Viking Age

.

1000

Viking settlements
in Russia

EMPORIA
Expansion of early
Slav culture

Expansion of early
Slav culture

Germanic Iron Age

Suevian and
Visigothic kingdoms

A.D.

500

Migration period

three-aisled
longhouses

Roman Iron Age

Arab conquest

Later Sarmatians

Wielbark
culture

A.D. 1

Roman
Iron Age

Pontic
kingdom

Tollund
Man

Roman period

Sarmatians

Carthaginian control
Scythians
Early Iron Age

Pre-Roman
Scythian
Iron Age
raids

Bosporan
kingdom

Greek
colonies
established

Iron use
appears

Early Scythians

Greek
colonies
established
Iron Age
Establishment
of Phoenician
colonies
urnfields

500 B.C.

1000

B.C.

Late Bronze Age

1500

B.C.

Classic Bronze Age

2000

B.C.

Later Bronze Age

Lusatian culture

Middle Bronze Age
Older Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age
Late Neolithic

A N C I E N T

Early Bronze Age

E U R O P E

Middle Bronze Age

xxv


C H R O N O L O G Y

O F

DATE

A N C I E N T

ITALY

E U R O P E ,

2 0 0 0

B

.

C

. –

A

.

SOUTHEASTERN
EUROPE AND
BALKANS

D

.

1 0 0 0

HUNGARY/
CARPATHIAN
BASIN

GREECE/
AEGEAN

A.D. 1000
Lombards/
Langobards

Great Moravian
empire

Magyars
Avars

Expansion of early
Slav culture

A.D. 500

Langobards

Byzantine reconquest

Hunnic expansion
Ostrogothic
kingdom
Romans cede
Dacia to Goths

A.D. 1

Roman Empire

Roman period

Roman period

Byzantine and Roman Empires

OPPIDA
Late Iron Age

Late Iron Age
Hellenistic period

500 B.C.

Roman republic

Middle Iron Age

Middle Iron Age

Classical period

Archaic period
figural
art

figural
art

Late Geometric period

Early Iron Age
Etruscans

1000 B.C.

Early Iron Age

Final Bronze Age
Greek Dark Age

Recent Bronze Age

1500 B.C.

Late Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

2000 B.C.

xxvi

Early Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age
Middle Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

A N C I E N T

E U R O P E


5
MASTERS OF METAL,
3000–1000 B.C.