Luận án tiến sĩ tính điền dạng của màu cơ bản trong tiếng anh và tiếng việt dưới góc độ ngôn ngữ học tri nhận

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
---------------------------------------

NGUYỄN ĐÔNG PHƯƠNG TIÊN

PROTOTYPES OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS
IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
FROM A COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS PERSPECTIVE
(TÍNH ĐIỂN DẠNG CỦA THUẬT NGỮ CHỈ MÀU CƠ BẢN
TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT
DƯỚI GĨC ĐỘ NGƠN NGỮ HỌC TRI NHẬN)

MAJOR: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
CODE: 9220201
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Linguistics

Hanoi, 2021


MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
---------------------------------------

NGUYỄN ĐÔNG PHƯƠNG TIÊN

PROTOTYPES OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS
IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
FROM A COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS PERSPECTIVE
(TÍNH ĐIỂN DẠNG CỦA THUẬT NGỮ CHỈ MÀU CƠ BẢN

TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TIẾNG VIỆT
DƯỚI GĨC ĐỘ NGƠN NGỮ HỌC TRI NHẬN)

MAJOR: ENGLISH LINGUISTICS
CODE: 9220201
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Linguistics

Supervisor:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. HOÀNG TUYẾT MINH

Hanoi, 2021


STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
The thesis entitled “Prototypes of basic colour terms in English and
Vietnamese from a cognitive linguistics perspective” has been submitted for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
I, the undersigned, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis, I
have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whether
published or unpublished, in my thesis.
The thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or
research paper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any
other university.
Signature

NGUYỄN ĐÔNG PHƯƠNG TIÊN

i

ABSTRACT
This dissertation, with the aim of identifying the prototypes of black/đen,
white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, grey/xám colour terms, attempts
to clarify the similarities and the differences among the prototypes of basic colour
terms in English and Vietnamese data with further explanations from cognitive and
cultural perspectives.
Data is collected with as + basic colour terms + as + object referent X
structure in English and Vietnamese data from literary works.
Mixed research methods are adopted in the following means: percentage
identification of individual object referent is based on quantitative method whereas
further explanations concerning distinctive features depend on qualitative method as
well as the similarities and the differences among these prototypes count on
contrastive method.
The findings show: night as prototype of black colour term, snow as
prototype of white colour term, blood/ rose as prototypes of red colour term, corn as
prototype of yellow colour term, emerald as prototype of green colour term,
sapphire as prototype of blue colour term, badger as prototype of grey colour term,
mực as prototype of đen colour term, ngà as prototype of trắng colour term, son as
prototype of đỏ colour term, nghệ as prototype of vàng colour term, tàu lá as
prototype of xanh colour term, tro/gio as prototype of xám colour term.
Theoretically, this dissertation provides comprehensible explanations of
cultural and cognitive characteristics of English and Vietnamese nations.
Practically, the study results are helpful for English and Vietnamese learners in
translating or interpreting these prototypes correctly from cultural and cognitive
viewpoints. Profound knowledge of English and Vietnamese linguistic systems is
beneficial for language learners for a more detailed description of the similarities
and the differences. Last but not least, native readers or speakers understand the
similarities and distinguish the differences for the appropriate daily usage.

ii


LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework of dissertation................................................................................ 54
Figure 2.2: Data analysis procedure of dissertation......................................................................... 79
Table 4.1: Prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data ......................... 128
Table 4.2: Objects as culture-specific referents of basic colour terms in English data and
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 129
Table 4.3: Research outcome comparison about the most representative object referents or
prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data ......................... 130
APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................................... 170
APPENDIX 1: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................... 170
Appendix 1.1: Main development representatives in terms of prototype & categories ......... 170
Appendix 1.2: Researches in English regarding lexicon research direction ............................ 172
Appendix 1.3: Researches in English related to semantics research direction......................... 176
Appendix 1.4: Researches in English from culture research direction...................................... 177
Appendix 1.5: Researches in English on the subject of cognition research direction ............ 178
Appendix 1.6: Researches in Vietnamese in regard to lexicon research direction.................. 181
Appendix 1.7: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of semantics research direction .............. 182
Appendix 1.8: Researches in Vietnamese connected to culture research direction ............... 184
APPENDIX 2: OBJECT REFERENTS OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE DATA ................................................................................................ 188
Table 2.1: Objects referents of black colour term in English data.............................................. 188
Table 2.3: Objects referents of red colour term in English data ................................................. 221
Table 2.4: Objects referents of yellow colour term in English data............................................ 229
Table 2.5: Objects referents of green colour term in English..................................................... 233
Table 2.6: Objects referents of blue colour term in English data................................................ 236
Table 2.7: Objects referents of grey colour term in English data ............................................... 239
Table 2.8: Objects referents of đen colour term in Vietnamese data ......................................... 241

Table 2.9: Objects referents of trắng colour term in Vietnamese data ...................................... 256
Table 2.10: Objects referents of đỏ colour term in Vietnamese data ......................................... 269

iii


Table 2.11: Objects referents of vàng colour term in Vietnamese data..................................... 282
Table 2.12: Objects referents of xanh colour term in Vietnamese data..................................... 286
Table 2.13: Objects referents of xám colour term in Vietnamese data...................................... 292
APPENDIX 3: TABLES OF OBJECT REFERENTS AND 06-CLASS CLASSIFICATION
AND CATEGORY SUB-CLASSIFICATION OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS
IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE DATA .......................................................... 294
Table 2.1: 27 English authors, 169 literary works and 430 tokens regarding
black/white/red/yellow/green/blue/grey colour terms............................................... 294
Table 2.2: 52 Vietnamese authors, 219 literary works and 443 tokens regarding
đen/trắng/đỏ/vàng/xanh/xám colour terms................................................................. 309
Table 3.1: Object referents of black colour term in English data ............................................... 328
Table 3.2: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of black colour term in
English data ...................................................................................................................... 330
Table 3.3: Object referents of white colour term in English data ............................................... 334
Table 3.4: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of white colour term in
English data ...................................................................................................................... 336
Table 3.5: Object referents of red colour term in English data ................................................... 339
Table 3.6: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of red colour term in English
data ..................................................................................................................................... 340
Table 3.7: Object referents of yellow colour term in English data ............................................. 341
Table 3.8: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of yellow colour term in
English data ...................................................................................................................... 342
Table 3.9: Object referents of green colour term in English data ............................................... 344
Table 3.10: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of green colour term in

English data ...................................................................................................................... 345
Table 3.11: Object referents of blue colour term in English........................................................ 346
Table 3.12: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of blue colour term in
English data ...................................................................................................................... 347
Table 3.13: Object referents of grey colour term in English data ............................................... 348

iv


Table 3.14: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of grey colour term in
English data ...................................................................................................................... 348
Table 3.15: Object referents of đen colour term in Vietnamese data......................................... 349
Table 3.16: 06-Class classification and category sub-classification of đen colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 351
Table 3.17: Object referents of trắng colour term in Vietnamese data ..................................... 353
Table 3.18: 06-class classification and category sub-classification of trắng colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 355
Table 3.19: Object referents of đỏ colour term in Vietnamese data........................................... 358
Table: 3.20: 06-class classification and category sub-classification of đỏ colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 360
Table 3.21: Object referents of vàng colour term in Vietnamese data ...................................... 363
Table 3.22: 06-class classification and category sub-classification of vàng colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 364
Table 3.27: Object referents of xanh colour term in Vietnamese data ...................................... 366
Table 3.28: 06-class classification and category sub-classification of xanh colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 367
Table 3.29: Object referents of xám colour term in Vietnamese data ....................................... 369
Table 3.30: 06-class classification and category sub-classification of xám colour term in
Vietnamese data............................................................................................................... 369

v


TABLE OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ..........................................................................................................i
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................ii
PART 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................1
1.

Rationale...................................................................................................................... 1

2.

Aims and Objectives................................................................................................... 3

3.

Research questions...................................................................................................... 3

4.

Scope of the study ....................................................................................................... 4

5.

Methodology of the study .......................................................................................... 7

6.

Significance of the study ............................................................................................ 8

7.

Structure of the study .................................................................................................. 9

PART 2. DEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................. 10
1.1.

REVIEW ON PREVIOUS STUDIES ................................................................... 10

1.1.1. In English .............................................................................................................. 10
1.1.2. In Việt Nam .......................................................................................................... 18
1.2.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND....................................................................... 28

1.2.1. Cognition............................................................................................................... 29
1.2.2. Onomasiology (Naming) ..................................................................................... 31
1.2.3. Culture................................................................................................................... 33
1.2.4. Language-cognition-culture relation ................................................................... 35
1.2.5. An introduction of Category ................................................................................ 37
1.2.6. Prototype and Prototype theory ........................................................................... 39
1.2.6.1.

An overview of Prototype terminology .........................................40

1.2.6.2.

Viewpoints on Prototype theory ....................................................41

1.2.7. An overview of basic colour terms ..................................................................... 43
1.2.7.1.

Physical features and linguistic criteria of basic colour terms.......44

1.2.7.1.1. Physical features of a basic colour term ......................................44
1.2.7.1.2. Linguistic criteria of a basic colour term ....................................45

vi


1.2.7.2.

Basic colour terms in English ........................................................46

1.2.7.3.

Basic colour terms in Vietnamese ..................................................46

1.2.8. Comparative idioms ............................................................................................. 49
1.3.

Theoretical framework of dissertation..................................................................... 52

1.4.

Summary ................................................................................................................... 55

CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 56

2.1.

Research approach .................................................................................................... 57

2.1.1. Mixed research approach ..................................................................................... 57
2.1.2. Comparative-contrastive approach...................................................................... 62
2.2.

Research methods ..................................................................................................... 64

2.2.1. Mixed research method........................................................................................ 64
2.2.2. Comparative-contrastive method ........................................................................ 69
2.3.

Data collection .......................................................................................................... 71

2.4.

Procedures of data collection and data analysis ...................................................... 75

2.5.

Data analysis ............................................................................................................. 77

2.6.

Summary ................................................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER 3: CLASS CLASSIFICATION AND CATEGORY SUB-CLASSIFICATION
OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE DATA .......................... 82

3.1.

Class classification and category sub-classification of basic colour terms in

English data ..............................................................................................................................
83
3.1.1. Class and category classification of black colour terms in English data......... 83
3.1.2. Class and category classification of white colour term in English data.......... 86
3.1.3. Class and category classification of red colour term in English data ............... 90
3.1.4. Class and category classification of yellow colour term in English .................. 93
3.1.5. Class and category classification of green colour terms in English data ....... 95
3.1.7. Class and category classification of grey colour term in English data ......... 100
3.2. Class classification and category sub-classification of basic colour terms in
Vietnamese data ................................................................................................................. 102

vii


3.2.1. Class and category classification of đen colour term in Vietnamese data ..... 102
3.2.2. Class and category classification of trắng colour term in Vietnamese data ... 105
3.2.3. Class and category classification of đỏ colour term in Vietnamese data ... 109
3.2.4. Class and category classification of vàng colour term in Vietnamese data.... 112
3.2.5. Class and category classification of xanh colour term in Vietnamese data.... 115
3.2.6. Class and category classification of xám colour term in Vietnamese data ..... 118
3.3.

Summary ................................................................................................................. 120

CHAPTER 4. COMPARISON OF PROTOTYPES OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN
ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE DATA ......................................................................................... 124

4.1. Prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data.......................... 124
4.2. Comparison of prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data 132
4.2.1. Prototype of black colour term in English compared to prototype of đen colour
term in Vietnamese......................................................................................................... 133
4.2.2. Prototype of white colour term in English compared to prototype of trắng colour
term in Vietnamese......................................................................................................... 135
4.2.3. Prototype of red colour term in English compared to prototype of đỏ colour term
in Vietnamese.................................................................................................................. 137
4.2.4. Prototype of yellow colour term in English compared to prototype of vàng
colour term in Vietnamese ............................................................................................. 140
4.2.5. Prototype of green colour term and prototype of blue colour term in English
compared to prototype of xanh colour term in Vietnamese ........................................ 141
4.2.6. Prototype of grey colour term in English compared to prototype of xám colour
term in Vietnamese......................................................................................................... 144
4.3.

Summary ................................................................................................................. 146

PART 3. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................................... 149
5.1. Recapitulation ............................................................................................................. 149
5.2.

Concluding remarks................................................................................................ 150

5.4.

Limitations and suggestions for further study....................................................... 155

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 157

viii


English references..................................................................................................................................... 157
Vietnamese references ............................................................................................................................. 164
RESEARCHER’S ARTICLES RELATED TO THE DISSERTATION ................................. 169
APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................................... 170
APPENDIX 1: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................... 170
APPENDIX 2: OBJECT REFERENTS OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH AND
VIETNAMESE DATA.......................................................................................................................... 188
APPENDIX 3: TABLES OF OBJECT REFERENTS AND 06-CLASS CLASSIFICATION
AND CATEGORY SUB-CLASSIFICATION OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH
AND VIETNAMESE DATA ............................................................................................................. 294

ix


PART 1. INTRODUCTION
1.

Rationale
The view on this diverse world results in different colour pictures, which

clearly reflects the distinctive values in cognition and culture of one nation itself. In
other words, colour terms, besides the usual daily semantically expressive
viewpoint, should be explored from deeper cognitive views underneath (Vũ Phương
Anh, 2011) so as to explore the connections between one colour term and the
equivalent prototypes in human beings’ cognition.
In the world, the issue of colour terms has been studied from various
research aspects as follows:

In terms of lexical aspect, the role of culture has been emphasized in
researching colour terminologies, rather than researching colour terminologies in
separation. Studies by Geiger (1869); Conklin (1955); Lakoff (1987); Kay & Maffi
(1999) have influenced this current dissertation since cultural element used to be
ignored in considering the connection between colour terminologies and their usage.
In Vietnamese, Trịnh Thị Minh Hương (1999) paid more attention to lexical aspect,
mainly towards one colour term or some basic colour terms in Vietnamese
language.
Regarding semantic viewpoint, Kövecses (1986) and Lucy (1992) lay the
foundation in which colour prototypes should be performed based on the semantic
features of colour category. In Việt Nam, Hoàng Văn Hành (1982), Nguyễn Hoàng
Phương Linh (2014) and Lê Phương Thảo (2018) compare and contrast the
semantic values and meanings between colour terms in Vietnamese and English.
Concerning culture factor, Chevalier and Gheerbrant (1997) as well as
Wierzbicka (2006) provide knowledge about the role of culture in the diverse
international system of colour symbols around the world. Nguyễn Khánh Hà (1995)
confirms the existence of the parallel connection between one particular linguistic

1


expression (a lexical word unit) and its associated typical cultural national
characteristics.
In respect of cognitive viewpoint, this research direction has been
increasingly popular and widely applied. Rivers (1897), Brown and Lenneberg
(1954), Berlin and Kay (1969), Heider (1971, 1972), Rosch (1973, 1974, 1975)
have been more aware of the fact that colour categories should be represented in
cognition in terms of a prototype (as the most salient object referent) of the category
surrounded by less-similarity object referents. Trần Thị Lan (2001), Lê Văn Thanh
(2014); Hoàng Tuyết Minh and Nguyễn Văn Quang (2015) identify the connection

between the prototypes of one basic colour and the associated objects in daily reallife situations close to one community members’ life culture and cognition related
to the similarities and differences between Vietnamese and English culture and
cognition system.
These researchers, concentrating on one single colour term or some specific
colour terms in one language only, does provide the most wide-ranging general
picture with further detailed explanations with the subject of linguistic and cognitive
system within one native community. Therefore, a research on basic colour terms
from a different theoretical framework (particularly, prototype theory) with a
broader research scope should be conducted with the hope of discovering basic
colour prototypes between English and Vietnamese languages together with further
explanations based on cultural and cognitive perspectives for better understanding
about the similarities and the differences between these two systems.
Practically, the findings of this dissertation introduce reliable information
related to the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data
accompanied by a comprehensible explanation of cultural and cognitive
characteristics of English and Vietnamese communities. The findings of this study
provide the background for English and Vietnamese learners to be able to translate
or interpret these prototypes of basic colour terms correctly in terms of cultural and

2


cognitive viewpoints. Native readers or speakers understand the similarities and
distinguish the differences for the correct daily usage between the two linguistic
systems in terms of prototypes, class classification and category sub-classification
of basic colour terms.
2.

Aims and Objectives
The ultimate aim of this dissertation is to compare and contrast the

prototypes of black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh,
grey/xám colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from the cognitive and
cultural perspectives.
The specific aim for this study is to point out the similarities and the
differences among the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese
data from cognitive and cultural perspectives; therefore, the following objectives are
put forward for the complete insight:
- To classify object referents functioning as colour-term referents of basic
colour terms in English and Vietnamese data into 06 classes and categories.
- To identify the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese
data based on prototype theory.
- To point out the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic
colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural
perspectives.
3.

Research questions
In order to achieve the aims of the study, this dissertation sets out the

following research questions:
- What are the classes and the categories of basic colour terms in English and
Vietnamese data?
- What are the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?

3


- What are the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic
colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural

perspectives?
4.

Scope of the study
Regarding dissertation approaches, this dissertation is employed based on

prototype, category and cognitive and cultural elements. In this study, a prototype is
defined as the most salient feature in connection with the list of other object referents of
one basic colour term whereas a category is the grouping of object referents of one
basic colour term based on the commonalities with the prototype. Additionally,
cognitive and cultural elements assist as explanatory role towards the prototypes of
basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data for similarities and differences.
With regard to research subjects, a basic colour term, based on Berlin and Kay’s
(1969) linguistic criteria, in the form of one single root adjective word as one
independent lexical unit, expresses the mental or psychological unit of our human
consciousness and of the whole world image reflected in human psychology. Based on
Berlin and Kay’s (1969) presentation of 11 basic colour terms, white, black, red,
yellow, blue, green, brown, purple, pink, grey, orange colour terms in English language
are the original research targeted subjects whereas those basic colour terms in
Vietnamese are trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh da trời (xanh dương), xanh lá cây, nâu, tím,
hồng, xám, cam in Vietnamese language.
Nevertheless, that xanh da trời (xanh dương) and xanh lá cây colour terms are
inappropriate due to the linguistic criteria of a basic colour term as one single
independent lexical word results in the final choice on xanh colour term in Vietnamese.
What is more, from the initial data collection step, in terms of examples containing
these basic colour terms from literary works, the data containing brown/nâu,
purple/tím, pink/hồng, orange/cam colour terms bring in the following number of
examples: 17/01, 04/02, 02/10, 01/00, respectively. Within this research scope, the
collected data of each basic colour term is expected to reach, at least, above 10

4


examples

for

strengthened

reliability.

The

examples

containing

nâu/purple/tím/pink/orange colour terms are too low to be reliable for the final
conclusion on the prototype of each colour term although those of brown/hồng colour
terms are above 10 examples. However, the ultimate aim of this study is to compare
and contrast the prototypes of colour terms in English and those in Vietnamese;
particularly, the following pairs of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data
(brown/nâu, purple/tím, pink/hồng, orange/cam) do not meet this criterion.
Consequently, brown/nâu, purple/tím, pink/hồng, orange/cam colour terms are
affirmed not to be the research subjects in this study.
In a nutshell, white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, grey colour terms in English
and trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám colour terms in Vietnamese have been asserted as
the official research colour terms targets in this dissertation. It should be noted that this
exact appearance sequence of basic colour terms is continuously applied and expressed
in presentation layout throughout the chapters in this dissertation.

Prototypes of basic colour terms in English and those in Vietnamese are
identified through comparative idioms formatted as + basic colour term + as + object
referent X structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data.
Idioms with comparative structures accumulated are from literary works in
English and Vietnamese data. From this, further information relating to the object
referents associated with each basic colour term as well as the percentage as the
finalized approximate percentage of all surrounding object referents with different
ranges of salience level lay the foundation for prototype identification and explanation
tasks.
In regard to data criteria, the data of this dissertation is collected and analyzed
based on:
- Basic colour terms in English (black, white, red, yellow, green, blue. grey) and
basic colour terms in Vietnamese (đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám) are the research
colour terms.

5


- Comparative idioms comprise as + basic colour term + as + object referent X
structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data.
- The prototype of a basic colour term in English or Vietnamese must be
understood as the core/ the best exemplar/ the most salient position/ the most central
element/ the most typical figure/ the most representative member/ the most central
features/ the most outstanding object/ the most obvious example in a category or in all
category members included in one colour category. The prototype of one basic colour
term is identified based on the highest appearance percentage; in other words, the
object referent associated with one basic colour term obtains the highest appearance
percentage is affirmed as the prototype of this basic colour term.
Concerning the process of prototype comparison of basic colour terms in
English and Vietnamese data, a colour term, based on Wierzbicka’s (1996) hypothesis

on the symbolic meaning attached to basic colour terms, is described as follows:
“People can see something like this when they see something else I can say that”
(Wierzbicka, 2005: 229). In short, a particular colour term ‘means what people mean or
have in mind when they use it’ (Wierzbicka, 1996: 293).
On the subject of category classification from the total object referents of basic
colour terms in English and Vietnamese data, the following 06 categories, namely
Flora, Fauna, Inanimate nature, Food and beverage, Man-made object, Body and
bodily product have been the official classifying criterion in this dissertation (Griber
YA, Mylonas D, Paramei GV, 2018). From this foundation, a detailed description of
the subject of sub-classification within these 06 categories is another main
concentration in this dissertation.
For the purpose of comparing and contrasting, this research applies Theoretical
Contrastive Analysis which looks for the realization of a universal category X in both
A and B (Fisiak et al., 1978: 10). In other words, that ‘X’ is understood as the prototype
of a basic colour term introduces the colour categories present in language A (or
English language) and language B (or Vietnamese language).

6


Figure 0.1: Theoretical CAs (Adapted from Fisiak et al. 1978: 10)
Comparative criteria, in terms of prototypes of basic colour terms, should
meet the following requirements: (i) Comparing the appearance frequency typical
for the object referents associated with one basic colour term before identifying the
prototype of this basic colour term. (ii) Comparing in terms of semantic meaning of
these prototypes in English and Vietnamese data. (iii) Comparing in terms of
cognitive and cultural features of these prototypes of basic colour terms in English
and Vietnamese data.
5.

Methodology of the study
This thesis is designed as a contrastive study using the mixed method.

Qualitative method and quantitative method, with bilateral relationships, are intertwined in analyzing prototypes of basic colour terms. The comparison of the
prototypes of basic colour terms in these two languages helps gain more insights
into the similarities and the differences associated with basic colour terms in two
cultures.
To be explained in further details, quantitative method (especially the
linguistic statistical method) provides reliable results based on SPSS tool.
Qualitative method (especially the descriptive method) provides explanations by
describing the distinctive features of the prototypes of black/đen, white/trắng,
red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, grey/xám colour terms to reflect lexical and
semantic distinctive features. Contrastive method compares the similarities and the
differences between English and Vietnamese cognition systems towards colour
terms, which reveal more information related to possible differences and similarities
in distinctive cultural features based on linguistic data between English and
Vietnamese nations.

7


6.

Significance of the study
This dissertation focuses on the most salient representative feature object

referents for the finalized prototypes of basic colour terms in English and
Vietnamese. Besides further research on cultural and cognitive characteristics of
English and Vietnamese language systems, the findings of this research set the
foundation for further research on basic colour terms in general and on the

prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data in particular.
Theoretically, the results of this study provide new insight into the
prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data. The study results
support studies in cognitive linguistics in general and distinctive cultural and
cognitive features in particular. Additionally, this research brings a clear
explanation regarding the cultural characteristics and cognition processes of English
and Vietnamese nations in order to illuminate the similarities and the differences
between the two linguistic systems.
Practically, the results of this study help English and Vietnamese teachers
and learners understand the prototypes of black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ,
yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, grey/xám colour terms in English and Vietnamese by
providing useful materials in the process of teaching and learning effectively.
Besides, English and Vietnamese native speakers can raise their awareness related
to the potential differences and similarities in the other language. In other words, the
knowledge of the enriching cultural and national distinctive features being
presented through colour prototypes helps readers understand the similarities and
distinguish the differences so as to grasp the underlying messages conveyed when
reading literary works or national comparative idioms. The potentially achieved
results will facilitate speakers of one foreign language with deeper understanding
related to the cognitive characteristics analyzed under the light of culture and
thinking between the two communities, especially for the benefit of cultural shock
avoidance.

8


7.

Structure of the study
Apart from Introduction and Conclusion, Development part is divided into:

Chapter 1, Literature Review, firstly, serves as an overview on the previous

studies related to colour and colour terms from multi-aspects with the purpose of
pointing out the existing gaps that this study attempts to fulfill. Secondly, this chapter
reviews relevant literature of prototype theory: naming theory, category, cognition and
culture. English and Vietnamese cultural features in addition to the language-culturecognition relation would also be presented. The following section is the presentation of
basic colour terms concentrating on physical features and linguistic criteria to identify the
basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data. Last but not least, the theoretical
framework as the core spine of this dissertation is presented.
Chapter 2, Methodology Chapter, delineates the choice of quantitative method,
qualitative method, comparative-contrastive analysis method comprising procedures,
data collection as well as data analysis procedures to facilitate the research process.
Chapter 3, Classes and categories of basic colour terms in English and
Vietnamese data, is a detailed description of the findings from data of comparative
idioms containing black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh,
grey/xám colour terms from literary works. The 06-class classification of basic colour
terms in English and Vietnamese as well as category sub-classification is represented.
This chapter paves the way for deeper illustration in terms of prototype identification and
prototype comparison in the following chapter.
Chapter 4, Comparison of prototypes of basic colour terms in English and
Vietnamese data, further explains the similarities and the differences between the
prototypes of basic colour terms in these two languages based on cognitive and cultural
values. This part contributes to the general pictures of English and Vietnamese nations
with regard to the prototypes of black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng,
green/blue/xanh, grey/xám colour terms.
Last but not least, References and Appendices come at the end of the dissertation.

9

PART 2. DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW
This Literature Review Chapter is a comprehensive and thorough overview
with reference to basic colour terms from multi-aspect research directions. This
section also concentrates on principal concepts forming the mainline theoretical
framework (prototype theory, category, cognition, culture) accompanied by the
widespread-synthesized presentation related to basic colour terms. This review
regarding previous studies brings in the dissertation theoretical framework.
1.1.

REVIEW ON PREVIOUS STUDIES
The study of colour terms across time and cultures started in the second half

of the 19th-century which witnesses the existence of a universalist perspective on the
colour debate in the mid-19th century (Biggam, 2012). Colour terms have been
investigated from a variety of perspectives.
1.1.1. In English
The debate around colour terms becomes popular since

Berlin & Kay's

famous study in 1969. Then, other researches predating or postdating this 1969s
time-mainline have concentrated on multi-aspect research directions. The research
history on basic colour terms can be classified into the four main research directions
as follows:
In terms of lexicon research direction, the scarcity of colour terms and the
strangeness of those used in Homer’s works in analyzing Homeric language related
to colours (Gladstone, 1858) as well as another similar observation for Indian Vedic
Poems in Sanskrit, Old Testament in Hebrew, Quran in Arabic and Sagas in
Icelandic (Geiger, 1869) were the highlight in the initial researches on colour terms.

Both Gladstone and Geiger, proposing a universal evolutionary sequence in which
colour vocabulary evolves in tandem with an assumed biological evolution of the
colour sense, concluded that full colour vision has evolved very recently in human
history. Gladstone’s view exploits the distinction between mind and brain

10


responsible for generating perceptual states which differ in psychological salience;
on the other hand, the psychological differences between more and less salient
perceived colours bias humans (Kay & Maffi, 1999) downplay the role of culture
and its main proponents (Berlin & Kay, 1969; Rosch, 1972).
In a similar vein, Gladstone’s view, with enormous influence on afterwards
researches, was developed into a diachronic model of colour language development.
This model is constructed from the evidence of synchronic colour term application.
The idea of detecting the refinement of colour term reference in distinct synchronic
sources and proposing a diachronic developmental sequence to explain such
improvement was accepted and regarded as ‘an evolutionary process which all races
experience’ (Magnus, quoted in Biggam, 2012: 13).
Regarding biologic-psychological theories, the universal aspects in colour
coding knowledge, lexical domain of colour, the empirical locus of linguistic
relativity and language determinism, the study on Mesoamerican colour terms was
researched entirely on basis of hue without any regard to intensity or saturation
(Klineberg, 1935) whereas human colour perception study was based on original
materials of more than 60 North-American Mesoamerican tribes (Jackendoff, 1952,
1953).
Study by Lenneberg and Robert (1953) was evaluated as a dedicated support
for the linguistic relativity hypothesis despite their main original intention originally
aimed as an additional research tool. In the original study in an array of 320 colour
chips varying in the dimensions of hue and brightness in a physical chart, Zuni

speakers are reported to encounter more difficulties in colour recall for these
colours than English speakers who have available terms to distinguish them. The
significant differences between the Zuni from the American Southwest and native
English speakers in the ranges informants for colour terms provide sufficient
evidence for the linguistic relativity hypothesis (Lenneberg and Robert, 1953).

11


Performed on a different participant subject (Hanunoo tribe in Philippines),
the lexical set of colour alphabet system related to perceptual categorization is the
central point (Conklin, 1955). Following the same research direction on human
beings in other nations, neither the investigation on 56 categories and the responses
by students from Universities of Maryland (270 subjects) and Illinois (172 subjects)
nor that between the American and Scottish studies in the field of colour terms
found no substantial agreement (Battig and Montague, 1965; Brown, 1978).
Another research direction of colour lexicon arising from the structure and
function of the visual system is considered as semantic universal received attention
from McDaniel (1972, 1974) who asserted the role of perception in determining
language in deriving semantic universals from properties of the visual system
towards any colour category.
One notable study among the vast literature works on colour terms was one
proposed by Lakoff in 1987. This study shows the possibility to compare colour
categories comprising focal colours in different languages (Lakoff, 1987).
To be conducted in a different research direction from others previously
mentioned, in particular, the respondents were asked to write down as many colour terms
as possible with no time limit as well as the group composed of people of between-17and-70 ages, this new research trend was able to check the ultimate number of colour
terms that can be remembered and notified (Taft and Sivik, 1997).
In the linguistic analysis on old English colour terms (grey, blue), that
collocations, referents and contrasts draw conclusions about the extension of the

word related to colour nuances illustrates the fact that detailed contextual studies of
a collection of individual tokens can be helpful towards the overall semantic
characterization of a given term (Biggam, 1997).
Besides the support towards colour terminology universalism, criticism
related to an autonomous neuro-physiological colour pathway is revealed in the
study of physiological colour perception (Saunders and van Brakel, 1997).

12


As an attempt of Berlin and Kay hypothesis, “World Colour Survey”, as
superordinate rules, determines the evolution of Basic Colour Terms: black and white
to distinguish black and white; Warm and Cool to distinguish the warm primaries (red
and yellow) from the cool primaries (green and blue); Red to distinguish red. The
ordering of these rules reflects the data accumulated from the overwhelming majority
of languages studied in World Colour Survey (Kay and Maffi, 1999).
Regarding the connection between colour language and speakers’ needs,
colour language develops based on speakers’ needs due to the differences in colour
language residing in differences in physiology and intensive literary contexts. In
other words, basic colour terms used by native speakers in one region depend on
human characteristics in colour cognition and multi-culture colour development and
structure. Colour has become a deeply studied domain that addresses the
relationship between language and thought thanks to the exhibition of both
biological and linguistic aspects. Colour cognition differences result in colour term
variability - more culture-specific phenomena from language to language (Surridge,
Osorio and Mundy, 2003; Kay and Reiger, 2006).
On the subject of the relation between primary and secondary colour term
division, the differences between basic colour terms and secondary colour terms
used by native community members, based on distinguishing criteria, are identified
for the close connection among the basic colour sensory agents and naming these

colours (Hardin, 2005).
Berlin and Kay's theory of basic colour terminology implies an ethnocentric
bias based on traditions of Western scientific and philosophical thought; however,
the translation method for colour terms from 78 languages is criticized. The
effectiveness of Munsell colour system in colour terminology elicitation and focal
hue identification as well as colour terminology de-contextualization and failure for
methodology limitation identification is questioned (Saunders, 2014).

13


In terms of semantics research direction, semantic domains of colour
categories comprise more central points with more identified features than
peripheral ones, and these focal points are defined as ‘basic colour terms’
(Kövecses, 1986). This new naming of basic colour terms, different from primary
and secondary colour terms, has been the background for further researches on basic
colour terms in one linguistic system in combination with other theoretical elements
from a more diverse research perspective.
How linguistic analysis has characterized the meanings of colour terms
across languages is the central achievement in this semantic research direction
(Lucy, 1992). Especially, this study focuses on the two critical dimensions in
defining the meaning of a term: referential range (what a colour term can refer to)
and grammatical distribution (how the term can be used).
On the subject of culture research direction, the relationship between
physiology and language, proposed by Gladstone (1858) and Magnus (quoted in
Biggam, 2012), was rejected. On surveying on colour-blindness cultures,
differences in colour language reside in differences in contexts: colour language
develops in relation to speakers’ needs, isolated from the vision system (Surridge,
Osorio and Mundy, 2003).
Based on Ndembu materials and rituals, colour classification was

recommended to exist in initial cultures, implying that colour element is connected
to culture element (Turner, 1967). This implication is in line with the previous
studies.
National colour symbols around the world, mainly in ethnology, socialism,
psychology, mythology and religion, provide the description and explanations about
the diverse aspects of colour symbolic meaning. Culture, included as socially
transmitted information, causes some differences in colour languages to express
themselves in connection with particular cultural or linguistic groups (Reiger, Kay

14