all in one electronics guide pdf

All-in-OneElectronicsGuide
Acomprehensiveelectronicsoverviewforelectronicsengineers,technicians,students,
educators,hobbyists,andanyoneelsewhowantstolearnaboutelectronics

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Yourcompletepracticalguidetounderstandingandutilizing
modernelectronics!
By:CammenChan
C&CGroupofCompaniesLLC.PublishedbyC&C
GroupofCompaniesLLC.Copyright2015.Allrights
reserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted
inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,or
otherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher.
Website:
E-mail:
Facebook: />Twitter: />Alltrademarksmentionedhereinarepropertyoftheirrespectivecompanies.
BookCoverEditor:FloraGillis
BookEditor:PriscillaP.Flores
BookCoverDesigner:KristinFleming />ISBN-10:1479117374ISBN-13:978-1479117376PrintedintheUnitedStatesof
America

III

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


AbouttheAuthor

CammenChanhasbeenworkingintheelectronicsindustrysince1996.Afterreceiving
hisbachelorofsciencedegreeinelectronicengineeringtechnologyfromtheWentworth
InstituteofTechnologyandmasterofsciencedegreeinelectricalengineeringfromBoston
University,hebeganhisengineeringcareeratIBMMicroelectronics,thenworkedat
AnalogDevicesInc.,NationalSemiconductor,andseveraltechnologystartups.Hehas
oneUSpatentinventionintheareaofnanotechnology.Since2009,Cammenhasalso
beenanadjunctfacultymemberatanumberofUScollegesanduniversitiesincludingITT
TechnicalInstitute,DeVryUniversity,WesternInternationalUniversity,Universityof
AdvancingTechnology,ChandlerGilbertCommunityCollege,RemingtonCollege,and
ExcelsiorCollege.Heteacheselectronicsengineeringtechnology,informationtechnology,
mathematics,andemergingtechnologies.Cammenhastaughtallthesubjectsinthisbook
invariousformatssuchason-site,online,andblendedclasses.Currently,Cammenisa
technicaltrainingengineeratMicrochipTechnologyinthePhoenixarea.

IV

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Introduction
Thesemiconductorindustryisabigbusiness.Theelectronicsindustryisevenbigger.The
semiconductorindustryalonewasaUS$300billionplusindustryin2012.Thelong-term
trendofelectronicsisbrightandpromising.Withincreasinguseofelectronicdevicesin
consumer,commercial,andindustrialproductsandsystems,theelectronicsindustryis
alwaysgrowing.Ifyouareconsideringbecominganelectronicsengineer,thisbookgives
youthetechnicalskillsneededto“pass”thetechnicalpartsofinterviewsandthe
confidencetoincreaseyourchancesofgettingemployed.Ifyouarealreadyanelectronics
technicianorengineer,thisbookimprovesyourabilitytoperformatthehighestlevelat
workintheelectronicsfield.Ifyouwanttobeamicroelectronicsengineerorarealready
one,youwillfindthemicroelectronics-relatedcontentsinthisbookapplicabletoyour

work.Ifyouareaneducatorteachingelectronics,thisbookistheperfectreferenceforyou
andyourstudentswithstep-by-steptechnicalexamplesandquizzes.Ifyouarean
electronicshobbyist,thisbookofferssampledelectroniccircuits(electroniccomponents
connectedwitheachotherbywiresortraces)youcanapplytoyourdesign.Foreveryone
elseinterestedinlearningaboutelectronics,thisbookprovidesastrongfoundationof
whatyouneedtoknowwhenworkingwithelectronics.
Thechaptersaredividedintovariouselectronicprincipleslevels,frombasictoadvanced,
alongwithpracticalcircuitsandquizzes.Answersprovidestep-by-stepexplanationsof
howandwhytheanswerswerederived.Examplesandcircuitsinlaterchaptersbuildupon
previouschapters,thuscreatingaconsistentflowoflearningandagradualaccumulation
ofknowledge.Thelevelofmathematicsismoderatewithouttediousandcomplicated
mathmodelsandformulas.Forstudentsmajoringinelectricalengineering,thisbookis
morethanyourtypicalacademicelectronicstextbookthatoverwhelmsyouwithexcessive
theories,formulas,andequations.Instead,thematerialcoveredinthisbookiseasyto
read,withplentyofdiagrams,pictures,waveforms,andgraphs,andiseasytounderstand.
Accuratelyrepresentingournon-idealworld,thisbook’stechnicalcontentsgreatlydiffer
frommostacademictextbooks’false“ideal”perspective.Thecontentisinjectedwithreal
worldquantitiesandcharacteristics.Forexperiencedelectronicsprofessionals,educators,
andhobbyists,thisbookaffordsagoodrealitycheckandcomprehensivereviewtoassist
yourcareeroryourstudents,tobetterprepareforyournextjobinterview,andtoinspire
yournextelectronicsprojects.

V

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


HowThisBookIsOrganized
Chapter1:DirectCurrent(DC)
First,learndirectcurrent(DC)theories.Then,applytheminpracticalcircuits.Basic

electricalparameters,concepts,andtheoriesarecovered.Thischaptercloseswith
practicalDCcircuits.

Chapter2:Diodes
Zeroinondiode,thebuildingblockoftransistors.Thischapterexplainsnotonlywhata
diodeismadeofbutalsotherealworldcharacteristicsofdiodeandsomepracticaldiode
circuits.

Chapter3:AlternatingCurrent(AC)
AftercomprehendingDCanddiodes,learnaboutAC,anothercriticalelectronicsconcept.
Fromhigh-powerelectricplantstocomputersandwirelesscommunications,AC
operationstakeplaceincountlesselectronicsystems.GetagoodholdonACdefinitions,
commonACparameters,capacitors,inductors,andsimpleACcircuits.

Chapter4:AnalogElectronics
Analogelectronicsuseasubstantialamountofanalogquantities.Transistorsand
operationalamplifiers(op-amp)arethebuildingblocksofmainstreamelectroniccircuits
andsystems.BipolarandComplimentary-Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor(CMOS)arethe
mostcommontypesoftransistors.Bipolartransistorsconsistoftwodiodes.Ontheother
hand,CMOSdoesnotcontainanyactivediodes.Althoughgermanium,gallium,and
arsenidecanbeusedtobuildtransistors,bothbipolarandCMOStransistorsprimarilyuse
siliconastherawmaterial.Performancedifferencesbetweenrawmaterialstypesmustbe
consideredtochoosethecorrecttransistortype.CMOSandbipolartransistorshave
similarvoltageandcurrentcharacteristicswithmajordifferencesinfundamental
operation.Asolidunderstandingofthesedifferencesisessentialforanalyzingand
designingtransistorsandop-ampcircuits.

Chapter5:DigitalElectronics
Basicdigitalelectronicsrequireanin-depthunderstandingofdigitalquantities,high(1)
andlow(0)logiclevel,logicgates,andcircuits.Itisconsiderablythebestsemiconductor

technologychoiceforhigh-speeddesignandoperations.Incomparisontoanalog
quantities,thesimpletwolevels(1and0)offerdistinctadvantagesoveranalog
technologysuchaslowernoise.Forcostreasons,digitalelectronicspresentagoodcase
forusingCMOStransistortechnologyindigitalsystems.CMOStransistorsaremadein
deepsub-microscopicscalewithadvancedchipmanufacturingcapability,while
manufacturingthroughputscontinuestoincreaseexorbitantly.Forhighspeed,highwww.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


densitydigitaldesignssuchasApplicationSpecificIntegratedCircuit(ASIC),Field
ProgrammableGateArray(FPGA),ormicroprocessors,digitaldesignersoftenuse
softwaretowriteprograms/codeforgeneratingCMOSdesign.UsingVHDLorVerilog,
instead

VIHowThisBookIsOrganized
ofmanuallyplacingtransistorsindividuallyinschematicsasinanalogdesign,digital
circuitsaregeneratedtorepresentthefunctionalandbehavioralmodelsandoperationsof
thetargetCMOSdesign.Inrecentyears,BiCMOSprocesshasgainedpopularity.Asits
nameimplies,thisprocesscombinesbothbipolarandCMOSdevices,offeringthebestof
both.

Chapter6:Communications
Electroniccommunicationsaretechnology.Itisanenormousbusinesses.Radios,cell
phones,homeandbusinesscomputersconnectedtotheinternetbyusingeitherwiredor
wirelessconnectionsarejustsomeexamples.Thevastmajorityofthistechnologyisonly
possibleduetotheadvanceddevelopmentofelectroniccommunicationsystems.
Additionally,amplitudemodulation,frequencymodulation,andphaselockedloopswill
bediscussedinthischapter.Understandingbasiccommunicationtheories,techniques,and
parameterswillgreatlyassistyourworkinthecommunicationsengineeringfield.the
foundationofwiredindustrywithitsmarketandwirelesscommunications
coveringbothconsumersand

Chapter7:Microcontrollers
Microcontrollersiliconchipshavefoundtheirwayintoavarietyofelectronicproducts.
Oneautomobilealonehasanaverageofeightymicrocontrollerscontrollingtheengine,
steeringwheelcontrols,GPS,audiosystems,powerseats,andothers.Microcontrollersare
embeddedinmanyconsumerandindustrialelectronicsincludingpersonalcomputers,TV
sets,homeappliances,children’stoys,motorcontrol,securitysystems,andmanymore.
Thefinalproductsthatusemicrocontrollersareembeddedsystems.Thesedevicesare
fieldprogrammable:theyallowsystemdesignerstoprogramthechiptotheneedsofa
specificapplication,whilelettingendusersperformalimitedamountofmodification.For
example,anenduserturningonamicrowaveovenisactually“programming”thetimer.
However,theenduserdoesnothaveaccesstothesourcecodeonthemicrocontroller,
hencethename“embeddedsystems.”Moreover,thesamemicrocontrollercanbeusedin
multipledesigns.Forinstance,dishwashersandrefrigeratorsusethesamemicrocontroller
witheachdesignhavingitsownspecificcodedownloadedtothemicrocontroller,
resultingintwocompletelydifferentapplications.Themicrocontroller’sfield
programmingcapabilitiesallowsmanyapplicationstobedesignedataverylowcost.
Comprehendingmicrocontrollerarchitectureandbasicprogrammingtechniqueswill
prepareyoutoexcelinthisfield.

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Chapter8:ProgrammableLogicControllers
ProgrammableLogicControllers(PLCs)arewidelyusedinapplications.Thus,itis
worthwhiletostudytheminadditiontoconsumer-basedsystems.TypesandusesofPLCs
arecoveredfirst,followedbyaninsidelookatPLCs.Ladderlogicprogramming,a
graphicalprogrammingtechnique,istheheartofPLCs.Inaddition,afterexploring
practicalPLCprogramsandapplications,thechaptercloseswithPLCstroubleshooting
techniquesandfuturedevelopment.

HowThisBookIsOrganizedVII
industrialandcommercial

Chapter9:MentalMath
Ifyouhavetouseacalculatortosolve1/1k=1m,youareprobablynotmakingagood
impressiononinterviewersorevencoworkers.Usingmentalmathtodeciphersimple
arithmeticanswersdemonstratessolidmathematic,analytic,andproblemsolving
capabilities.Youcanlearnsimpletechniquestoimproveyourmentalmathabilityfor
calculatingelectronicsarithmetic.

Chapter1:DirectCurrent(DC)______________________________-1

Current
________________________________________________________________________
-1Resistor
________________________________________________________________________
-1Voltage
________________________________________________________________________
-5
Definition______________________________________________________________________
-5Ohm’s
Law______________________________________________________________________
-6Power
_________________________________________________________________________
-7VoltageSourceandSchematic
______________________________________________________-7CurrentSource
andSchematics_____________________________________________________-8
Electrons
_______________________________________________________________________8Currentversus

Electrons___________________________________________________________-9
Kirchhoff’sVoltageLaw(KVL)
______________________________________________________-9Kirchhoff’s
CurrentLaw(KCL)______________________________________________________11ParallelCircuit
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


__________________________________________________________________-11
ParallelResistorRule
____________________________________________________________-12Series
Resistor
Rule______________________________________________________________-13
CurrentDividerRule
_____________________________________________________________-15Voltage
Divider_________________________________________________________________
-16Superposition
Theorems__________________________________________________________-19
DCCircuits
_____________________________________________________________________-22
ICPackages
____________________________________________________________________-24
Summary
______________________________________________________________________33Quiz
__________________________________________________________________________
-33

Chapter2:Diodes_______________________________________-37
P-N
Junctions___________________________________________________________________
-37Forward-BiasedandReverse-Biased

________________________________________________-40DiodeI-VCurve
_________________________________________________________________-42
XTableofContents
DiodeCircuits
__________________________________________________________________-43
Summary
______________________________________________________________________47Quiz
__________________________________________________________________________
-48

Chapter3:AlternatingCurrent(AC)_________________________-49
SineWave
_____________________________________________________________________-49
FrequencyandTime
_____________________________________________________________-50Peak
Voltagevs.Peak-to-PeakVoltage
______________________________________________-52DutyCycle
_____________________________________________________________________-52
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Vrms
_________________________________________________________________________
-54Impedance,Resistance,and
Reactance______________________________________________-54Capacitors
_____________________________________________________________________-55
XCversus
Frequency_____________________________________________________________56SimpleCapacitorCircuit
__________________________________________________________-57I(∆t)=C
(∆V)___________________________________________________________________59CapacitorChargingandDischarging

Circuit___________________________________________-60ParallelCapacitor
Rule___________________________________________________________-63
SeriesCapacitorRule
____________________________________________________________-63Power
RatioindB
_______________________________________________________________-64RC
SeriesCircuit
________________________________________________________________-64
–20dBperDecade
______________________________________________________________-65LowPassFilter
_________________________________________________________________-68
PhaseShift
____________________________________________________________________-69
Radian
________________________________________________________________________
-70ICE
___________________________________________________________________________
-71Inductors
______________________________________________________________________73XLversusFrequency
_____________________________________________________________-74V(∆t)=
L(∆I)___________________________________________________________________
-75ELI
___________________________________________________________________________
-77QFactor
_______________________________________________________________________77ParallelInductorRule
____________________________________________________________-78Series
InductorRule
_____________________________________________________________-79HighPassFilter
_________________________________________________________________-80
RealLandC

____________________________________________________________________-83

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


PracticalACCircuits
_____________________________________________________________-85Ringing
andBounce_____________________________________________________________
-86Inductive
Load__________________________________________________________________87DiodeClamp
___________________________________________________________________-88
SeriesRLC
Circuit_______________________________________________________________89LRCParallel(Tank)
Circuit_________________________________________________________-91
Transformers__________________________________________________________________
-93Half-Wave
Rectifier______________________________________________________________95SwitchingversusLinearRegulators
_________________________________________________-97BuckRegulator
_________________________________________________________________-97
Summary
_____________________________________________________________________100Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-101

Chapter4:AnalogElectronics____________________________-105
WhatIsAnalog?
_______________________________________________________________-105
AnalogICMarket
______________________________________________________________-106What
AreTransistorsMadeOf?

___________________________________________________-107NPNand
PNP__________________________________________________________________108NPNandPNPSymbols
__________________________________________________________-109Transistor
Cross-Section_________________________________________________________110BipolarTransistorTerminal
Impedance_____________________________________________-111IC,IB,IE,and
Beta(β)___________________________________________________________-111

XIITableofContents
VBE
_________________________________________________________________________
-113IE=IC+IB
____________________________________________________________________-113
ICversusVCECurve
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


____________________________________________________________-114
CommonEmitterAmplifier
______________________________________________________-115Common
CollectorAmplifier(EmitterFollower)______________________________________118CommonBase
Amplifier_________________________________________________________-120
Single-EndedAmplifierTopologiesSummary
________________________________________-121Tranconductance(Gm),SmallSignalModels________________________________________-121Common
EmitterAmplifierInputImpedance________________________________________123CommonEmitterAmplifierOutputImpedance
______________________________________-124CommonCollectorAmplifier
Small-SignalModel_____________________________________-127CommonBase
AmplifierSmall-SignalModel________________________________________-128
Single-EndedAmplifierSummary
_________________________________________________-129NMOSandPMOS
______________________________________________________________-1303D

NFET
______________________________________________________________________131DrainCurrentandThresholdVoltage
______________________________________________-132NFETandPFET
Symbols_________________________________________________________-132IC
Layout
_____________________________________________________________________134VHDLandVerilog
______________________________________________________________-135
MOSFETCrossSectionandOperations
_____________________________________________-136MOSFETOn-Off
Requirements____________________________________________________-137ID
versusVDSCurve
____________________________________________________________-139CMOS
SourceAmplifier_________________________________________________________
-139MOSFETParasitic
______________________________________________________________-142
CommonDrainAmplifier(SourceFollower)
_________________________________________-143CommonGate
Amplifier_________________________________________________________-145
BipolarversusCMOS
___________________________________________________________-147
DifferentialAmplifiers
__________________________________________________________-148

TableofContentsXIII
CommonMode
________________________________________________________________-149
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


CMRRandDifferentialGain

______________________________________________________-150Current
Mirror_________________________________________________________________152Op-Amp
______________________________________________________________________153Op-AmpRules
_________________________________________________________________-155
InvertingAmplifier
_____________________________________________________________-158NonInvertingAmplifier
_________________________________________________________-160Op-Amp
Parameters____________________________________________________________162LM741
_______________________________________________________________________164CurrentMirrorInaccuracies
______________________________________________________-165WilsonCurrent
Mirror__________________________________________________________-166
Bipolar
Cascode________________________________________________________________167DarlingtonPair
________________________________________________________________-168
CMOSCacosde
________________________________________________________________-170
Buffer(VoltageFollower)
________________________________________________________-171Summing
Amplifier_____________________________________________________________172ActiveLow-PassFilter
___________________________________________________________-174Circuit
Simulator_______________________________________________________________
-176Hysteresis
____________________________________________________________________-179
PositiveFeedback(Oscillation)
___________________________________________________-182Instrumentation
Amplifier_______________________________________________________-184
LinearRegulator
_______________________________________________________________-185Low
Drop-out(LDO)Regulator
____________________________________________________-186Summary

_____________________________________________________________________189Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-190

Chapter5:DigitalElectronics_____________________________-195
1sand0s:TheInverter
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


__________________________________________________________-196NMOS
Inverter________________________________________________________________
-197NFETandPFETInverter
_________________________________________________________-197Inverter
Action________________________________________________________________198Shoot-Through
Current__________________________________________________________-199
Ring
Oscillator_________________________________________________________________
-200ORLogicGate
_________________________________________________________________-202
ORGateSchematic
_____________________________________________________________-202ThreeInputOR
Gate____________________________________________________________-203
LSB,MSB
_____________________________________________________________________204NOR
Gate_____________________________________________________________________
-204ANDandNAND
Gates___________________________________________________________-205
XORGate
_____________________________________________________________________206CombinationalLogic
____________________________________________________________-206Boolean

Algebra_______________________________________________________________207Latch
________________________________________________________________________
-208FlipFlop______________________________________________________________________
-210DandJ-KFlipFlops_____________________________________________________________-211
Frequency
Divider______________________________________________________________211Shift
Register__________________________________________________________________
-213ParallelDataTransmission
_______________________________________________________-214Multiplexer
___________________________________________________________________-215
Mixed-signal
__________________________________________________________________-216
LevelShifter
__________________________________________________________________-217
Multi-Layer
Board______________________________________________________________-217
DigitalVoltageLevels

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


___________________________________________________________-219

TableofContentsXV
Analog-to-DigitalConverter
______________________________________________________-219Nyquist
Frequency_____________________________________________________________221ADCGainandOffsetErrors
______________________________________________________-222Digital-toAnalogConverter______________________________________________________224Binary-WeightedDAC
___________________________________________________________-225555Timer
____________________________________________________________________-226

Summary
_____________________________________________________________________230Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-230

Chapter6:Communications_____________________________-231
TimeversusFrequencyDomains
__________________________________________________-232Harmonics,
Distortion,andInter-modulation________________________________________234Modulation
___________________________________________________________________-236
BitRate,USB,andBaud
_________________________________________________________-236C=Fλ
_______________________________________________________________________237AmplitudeModulation
__________________________________________________________-238
ModulationIndexandBesselChart
________________________________________________-239AM
Transmitter________________________________________________________________
-240FrequencyModulation
__________________________________________________________-241Phase
LockLoop(PLL)
___________________________________________________________-242Summary
_____________________________________________________________________245Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-245

Chapter7:Microcontrollers_____________________________-247

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com

MCU
Parameters_______________________________________________________________
-248HarvardArchitecture
___________________________________________________________-251Dataand
ProgramMemory______________________________________________________251MCUInstructions
______________________________________________________________-255
InstructionClock
_______________________________________________________________-257
InternalOscillator
______________________________________________________________-258
Interrupt
_____________________________________________________________________260SpecialFeatures
_______________________________________________________________-261
Development
Tools_____________________________________________________________-262
Debugger_____________________________________________________________________
-263DesignExample:
Comparator_____________________________________________________-265
DesignExample:Timer
__________________________________________________________-269Summary
_____________________________________________________________________271Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-271

Chapter8:ProgrammableLogicControllers_________________-273
History
_______________________________________________________________________273PLCBenefits
__________________________________________________________________-275
PLCComponents
_______________________________________________________________-276PLC

ProgrammingandLadderLogic
________________________________________________-278PLCProgramming
Example_______________________________________________________-283PLC
ProgrammingSyntax
________________________________________________________-286Timers
_______________________________________________________________________292On-Timer
_____________________________________________________________________293On-TimerApplication
___________________________________________________________-294OffTimer_____________________________________________________________________
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


-295Off-TimerApplication
___________________________________________________________-296Counter
______________________________________________________________________297CounterApplication
____________________________________________________________-298
ProgramControlInstructions
_____________________________________________________-300JumptoLabel
Instructions_______________________________________________________-300
JumptoSubroutineInstructions
__________________________________________________-301NestedSubroutines
____________________________________________________________-303

TableofContentsXVII
TemporaryEnd
________________________________________________________________-304
DataManipulationInstructions
___________________________________________________-304PLCData
Structure_____________________________________________________________305MOVInstruction
_______________________________________________________________-306
MOVInstructionApplication

_____________________________________________________-307DataCompare
Instructions_______________________________________________________-308
MathInstructions
______________________________________________________________-311
SequencerInstructions
__________________________________________________________-315Trends
_______________________________________________________________________317Summary
_____________________________________________________________________317Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-318

Chapter9:MentalMath________________________________-319
MultiplesandSubmultiplesofUnits
_______________________________________________-319DecimalNumbers
______________________________________________________________-320
WholeNumbers
_______________________________________________________________-320
MultiplesNumberConversion
____________________________________________________-320Submultiples
NumberConversion_________________________________________________-321
One-OverReciprocalwithMultiplesandSubmultiples
www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


________________________________-323MultiplicationandDivisionwith
MultiplesandSubmultiples___________________________-325Percentageto
Decimals_________________________________________________________-326
LogtoRealNumber
____________________________________________________________-326
Summary

_____________________________________________________________________328Quiz
_________________________________________________________________________
-328

AbbreviationsandAcronyms____________________________-329Index
________________________________________________-335

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Chapter1:DirectCurrent(DC)
StudentsmajoringinelectronicsalwaysstartwithaDirectCurrent(DC)class.DCisa
basicelectronictheorythatyoumustlearnandunderstandwell.Thisisthefirststeptoa
successfulcareerinelectronics.Let’sfirstdefinesomeDCparameters.

Current
Electricalcurrentisquantifiedaschange(∆ordelta)ofelectroncharge(Q)withtime.
Thinkofitasflowrateinplumbing.measureofcharges(∆Q)flowingthroughapoint
(node)withtime(seefigure1.0).Current’sunitisamperes(A)with“I”beingitssymbol.
Electricalcurrentisathenumberofelectron

Current=∆Q/TimeResistor
Allmaterialspossessresistance,whichisameasureoftheamountofresistorvalue.A
resistorisapassiveelectronicdevicemadeexclusivelyforelectronicsystems.Resistors
resistcurrentflowforagivenelectricalvoltage(voltagewillbedefinedshortly).A
passivedevicebydefinitiondoesnotgenerateenergybutratherstoresand/ordissipates
energy.Themostabundantmaterialsusedinresistorsarecopper(Cu)andaluminum(Al).
Carbon,thin-film,metalfilm,andwire-woundarepopularresistortypes.Resistorsize
(resistance)ismeasuredinunitOhms(Ω)with“R”asthesymbol.Resistorscomein
manyphysicalforms.Wire-leads,surface-mount,integratedcircuits(ICs)packageare

popularones.Figure1.1onthenextpageshowsagraphicalviewofacopper(Cu)wire
bundlewithacertainlengthandareaexhibitingafiniteresistanceamount.Internetwires
andcablesfoundinresidentialandcommercialdwellingsarelargelymadeofcopperwith
aplasticshieldontheoutside.Aresistorcanbediscrete(onedeviceperitem)or
manufacturedviaanICprocesshousedinanICpackage.Wewillexploremoreon
semiconductorpackageslaterinthechapter.Resistanceforagivenmaterialstrongly
dependsontheresistordimension,whereresistivityisuniquetothematerialstype:

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Figure1.0:∆Q/time

Figure1.1:Copperwire
Commoncarbonresistorsaremeasuredintheorderofseveralcentimeters(seefigure
1.1a).

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Figure1.1a:Carbonresistors
Duetothesmallcarbonresistorsizes,colorbandsareusedtoindicateresistancevalues
insteadofprintingthemontheresistors.Therearefourbands.Thefirstbandontheleft
representsthefirstsignificantresistancedigit.Thesecondbandisthesecondsignificant
digit.Thethirdbandisthemultiplier,andthelastistolerance.Tolerancedeterminesthe
maximumpercentagechangeinresistancefromitsnominalvalue.Table1-1showsthe
detailsamongbandcolor,digitvalues,multiplier,andtolerances.

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com

Table1-1:Resistorbandcolor,digitvalues,multiplier,andtolerances
Let’sapplythistoanexample.Whatistheresistanceofthecarbonresistorthathas
Brown,Orange,Red,andGoldbands?First,brownyields“1”;orangemeansdigit“3”;
redmultipliermeans“100”;goldrepresents5%tolerance.Theresistanceistherefore
calculatedas:
13X100=1,300Ωor1.3kΩwith5%tolerance.

Figure1.1b:
Surface-mountresistor

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Surface-mountresistors,ontheotherhand,arepopularduetotheirminiaturesizes.They
areidealforportableapplicationswhensmallsizeisnecessary.Figure1.1bshowsseveral
surface-mountresistors.Asurface-mountresistorcanbemeasuredassmallas0.2mm
(millimeter)X0.4mm(millimeter).Becausesurface-mountresistorsaresmall,inorderto
determinetheirvalues,numberingcodesareusedinsteadofcolorbands.Thenumbers
printedontheresistorareusually3-digitnumbers.
Thefirsttwonumbersrepresentthefirsttwodigitsoftheresistorvalueswhilethethird
digitrepresentsthenumberofzeros.Forexample,aresistormarkedwith203means20X
1,000Ωor20kΩ.A105resistorgives10X105Ωor1MΩ.Resistorsmanufacturedby
microelectronicstechnologyusedifferentmethodstodetermineresistances.Depending
uponthechipmanufacturingprocess,therecanbemultipleresistortypes,rangingfrom
metalandthin-filmtopolyresistors.Theresistancesaredeterminedbytheverticaland
horizontaldimensionsinconjunctionwiththesheetrho(pronouncedasrow)resistance.
Sheetrho’sunitsareinΩpersquare(Ω/square).Forexample,aBipolar-CMOS
(BiCMOS)processthin-filmresistor’ssheetrhoisspecifiedas1,000Ω/square.Length
/Widthdefinesthesquarenumbers.Iftheresistor’slengthandwidtharedrawnas10

micrometers(um)by10micrometer(um)respectively,thenumberofsquareequatesto10
um/10um=1.Theresistanceisthencalculatedas:

Regardingthechipmanufacturingprocess,inadditiontosheetrhoresistances,each
processoffersaslewofdeviceswithauniquesetofparameters.Belowaresomecommon
onesyouwilllikelyencounter.Transistors’minimumgeometries:CMOSusesgatelength
wherebipolartransistorsuseemitterwidth.Transistors’maximumoperatingfrequencies:
capacitors’capacitanceperunitarea;temperaturecoefficient(itdetermineshowmuch
variationsdeviceparameterchangeswithtemperature);maximumvoltagesupplyand
breakdownvoltages;transistors’drawnversusmanufactureddimensions,metallevel
numbersavailable,andmanymore.Furtherexplanationsoftheseparameterswillbe
discussedlaterinthisbook.Fullunderstandingoftheseparametersisnecessarybefore
decidingonaprocesstouseforaparticularchipdesign.Furtherdetailsonmicroelectronic
designwillalsobediscussedinlaterchapters.

Voltage
Voltageisthepotentialdifference(subtraction)betweentwopoints(nodes).Theobjectof
thesepointscanbeanymaterial.Themostcommonmaterialsareelectronicdevicessuch
asresistors,diodes,andtransistors,whicharethemainfocusofthisbook.Eachelectrical
parameterhasitsownsymbolandunit.Theyaresummarizedintable2-1.

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


Table2-1:
V,I,Rsymbols;units

Definition
Directcurrent(DC)statesthatelectricalcurrentflowsthrougharesistorwithoutchanges
inamplitudesorfrequencies.Awaveformcanbeusedtomakeclearsuchphenomenon.A

waveformisatime(transient)domaingraphthatshowsquantitiessuchasvoltage,
current,orpoweronthevertical(Y-axis);timeonthehorizontal(X-axis)(seefigure1.2).
Inthiswaveform,theDCvoltagelevelstaysthesameovertimewhilethefrequencyof
DCiszero.Wewillfurtherdefineamplitudeandfrequencyinchapter3,AC.

Figure1.2:Voltagevs.timeinDC

Ohm’sLaw
Ohm’slawstatesthatwhenthereisavoltagedeveloped(drop)acrossaresistor,i.e.,
voltagedifferencebetweentworesistorends(nodes),electricalcurrentisboundtoflow.
Themathematicalrelationshipbetweenvoltage(V),current(AorAmp),andresistance

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com


(Ω):

Voltage=CurrentXResistance
Foragivenresistorsize,increasingvoltagecausescurrenttoincreaselinearly.Thereby,
Ohm’slawissimplyalinearfunction(seefigure1.3).Wecanapplytheabovelinear
relationshipamongvoltage,current,resistor,andslopeconcepttocalculateresistance.A
V-Igraphisshowninfigure1.4.Anytwopointscanbeusedtocalculateslope
(resistance).Becausethisisalinearfunction(straightline),slope(resistance)isfixed.
Resistorsareusuallyinlargesizes—thousandsofΩs,sometimesevenmore.Thisis
because,foragivenvoltage,largeresistanceresultsinlowercurrent(linearrelationship).
Thisisessentialduetosafetyandpower-savingreasons.UsingOhm’slaw,1Vdividedby
1Aequals1Ωresistance(1V/1A=1Ω).Oneampereisalotofcurrent,infact,current
above100mA(milliamp)goingthroughthehumanbodyisdeemedlethal.Tolowerthe
currentforagivenvoltageata

Figure1.3:Ohm’sLaw,
alineargraph

www.TechnicalBooksPDF.com