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READING BOOK
ENGLISH FOR BIOTECHNOLOGIST
FACULTY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY
Collected by Nguyen Van Dao, PhD.
HANOI, 2010
1
Unit 1
The Benefits of Chlorophyll
What is Chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll is known to be "the plant's blood," that is, the principal element in the
physiology of plant life. Chlorophyll is a substance that is rich in magnesium whose
form is similar to that of hemoglobin. The only difference between chlorophyll
molecule and that of blood, is a central atom which is iron in blood and magnesium
in chlorophyll. According to experts , this similarity causes the body to have the
capability of transforming a chlorophyll molecule into one of hemoglobin by
changing just one atom of magnesium into one of iron.
Chlorophyll is the substance in the plant that makes it green. Adding green leafy
vegetables to one's diet helps add chlorophyll. This green substance is full of
important, healing nutrients that revive the body with oxygen for optimum health.
When taking chlorophyll into our bodies, our hemoglobin count is elevated and as a
result, our circulation improves and we have more energy. It also enriches the blood
with special nutrients that build iron.
What is Chlorophyll Good For?
Besides what is mentioned above, chlorophyll helps increase heart function, improves
the vascular system, cleanses the liver of heavy metals and chemical toxins, cleanses
and improves the health of the intestines, uterus, and lungs. It is also a natural breath
freshener and body deodorizer.
For people who really want to cleanse their bodies of impurities, adding chlorophyll
is a great way to go. From liver and colon cleanses, to blood and circulation
improvement, chlorophyll in the diet will bring vast improvements. If elimination

issues are plaguing you, adding chlorophyll to your diet will help solve your problem.
How do you take Chlorophyll?
Chlorophyll is found in all sorts of delicious green vegetables like: alfalfa, broccoli,
spinach, Swiss chard, Brussels sprouts, beet greens, green peppers, kale, leeks, turnip
greens and etc. Also, when consuming raw, fresh and “living” foods, you get more
chlorophyll. Truly, once you feel and even see the differences in your complexion
and in your general body health, you will be impressed and convinced.
If you know your body is very deprived of chlorophyll and want extra help in terms
of a supplement, go by your health food store and purchase a chlorophyll product.
Take one a day or as directed by your naturopath and experience the incredible
results for yourself.
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Read more: />nutrition/articles/15698.aspx#ixzz0lpizWGqK
Unit 2
Panax Ginseng Health Benefits and Information
Panax ginseng is a member of the Araliaceae family of plants, which includes the
closely related American ginseng and less similar Siberian ginseng. Panax ginseng
commonly grows on mountain slopes and is usually harvested in the fall. The root of
panax ginseng is used preferably from plants older than six years of age.
Panax ginseng is different from American ginseng and Eleuthero. They are not
interchangeable.
Unlike American ginseng and Eleuthero or Siberian Ginseng, panax has been a part
of Chinese medicine for thousands of years. It is used in connection with many
conditions such as cancer, anxiety, colds, flu and for lowering blood levels of sugar
and cholesterol, as in type 2 diabetes and high cholesterol. Most commonly known as
an adaptogen, panax ginseng is currently being used in Asian countries to treat heart
conditions and lungs, as well as for an overall health enhancer. Panax ginseng has
been known to have a relaxing effect on the muscles in the lungs. The resulting
airway relaxation may help to calm asthma symptoms and other airways constricting
lung conditions. In some studies a combination of panax ginseng and gingko seemed

to increase memory and thinking processes.
Taking panax ginseng orally may enhance male fertility by increasing sperm count,
quality, and movement, as it activates the body system that increases production of
certain hormones. To increase athletic performance, panax ginseng is often added to
sports drinks or supplements. It has, however, not been proven effective for this use.
Also used for women, it is supposed that panax ginseng can cause an effect similar to
that of estrogen, by stimulating hormone production and related chemicals. In some
laboratory studies, panax ginseng increased the production of breast cancer cells. It is
possible that this is achieved by activating estrogen receptors. Panax ginseng may
increase blood levels of substances that the body converts into estrogen according to
some studies. More studies are being performed to verify the hormonal effects of
panax ginseng.
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Dosage and Administration………………………………………………
Panax ginseng may be taken by mouth or applied topically. It can be applied directly
to the penis in treatment for erectile dysfunction in men. It is available in capsules,
dried root powder, fresh root, liquid extracts, and teas. Usually it is standardized to
contain 7 of the active ingredients known as ginsenosides.
The amounts of active chemicals in panax ginseng vary greatly according to how the
plants are grown, harvested, processed, and stored. Panax ginseng products may be
extended with other types of ginseng that are less expensive to
produce……………………………………………………………………
Recommended daily dose of oral Panax ginseng is:
• Fresh Root - 500 mg to 3000 mg (0.5 -3 grams).
• Dried root powder capsules - 200 mg to 600 mg.
Tea may be made by soaking chopped fresh root or 1500 mg (1.5 grams) of dried root
powder in about 5 ounces of boiling water for 10 to 15 minutes. Strain to remove
solid particles. You may wish to sweeten the tea or flavor it with other herbs to make
it more enjoyable……………………………
It is encouraged to discontinue use after 3 months for a period of 2-3 weeks if using

panax ginseng continuously. It is always best to follow the directions on the package.
Unit 3
How much should you drink every day?
Water is essential to good health, yet needs vary by individual. These guidelines can
help ensure you drink enough fluids.
By Mayo Clinic staff
How much water should you drink each day? A simple question with no easy
answers. Studies have produced varying recommendations over the years, but in
truth, your water needs depend on many factors, including your health, how active
you are and where you live.
Though no single formula fits everyone, knowing more about your body's need for
fluids will help you estimate how much water to drink each day.
Health benefits of water
Water is your body's principal chemical component, making up, on average, 60
percent of your body weight. Every system in your body depends on water. For
example, water flushes toxins out of vital organs, carries nutrients to your cells and
provides a moist environment for ear, nose and throat tissues.
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Lack of water can lead to dehydration, a condition that occurs when you don't have
enough water in your body to carry out normal functions. Even mild dehydration can
drain your energy and make you tired.
How much water do you need?
Every day you lose water through your breath, perspiration, urine and bowel
movements. For your body to function properly, you must replenish its water supply
by consuming beverages and foods that contain water.
Several approaches attempt to approximate water needs for the average, healthy adult
living in a temperate climate.
 Replacement approach. The average urine output for adults is about 1.5 liters
(6.3 cups) a day. You lose close to an additional liter of water a day through
breathing, sweating and bowel movements. Food usually accounts for 20 percent of

your total fluid intake, so if you consume 2 liters of water or other beverages a day (a
little more than 8 cups) along with your normal diet, you will typically replace the
lost fluids.
 Eight 8-ounce glasses of water a day. Another approach to water intake is the
"8 x 8 rule" — drink eight 8-ounce glasses of water a day (about 1.9 liters). The rule
could also be stated, "drink eight 8-ounce glasses of fluid a day," as all fluids count
toward the daily total. Though the approach isn't supported by scientific evidence,
many people use this basic rule as a guideline for how much water and other fluids to
drink.
 Dietary recommendations. The Institute of Medicine advises that men
consume roughly 3 liters (about 13 cups) of total beverages a day and women
consume 2.2 liters (about 9 cups) of total beverages a day.
Even apart from the above approaches, if you drink enough fluid so that you rarely
feel thirsty and produce 1.5 liters (6.3 cups) or more of colorless or slightly yellow
urine a day, your fluid intake is probably adequate.
You may need to modify your total fluid intake depending on how active you are, the
climate you live in, your health status, and if you're pregnant or breast-feeding.
 Exercise. If you exercise or engage in any activity that makes you sweat, you
need to drink extra water to compensate for the fluid loss. An extra 400 to 600
milliliters (about 1.5 to 2.5 cups) of water should suffice for short bouts of exercise,
but intense exercise lasting more than an hour (for example, running a marathon)
requires more fluid intake. How much additional fluid you need depends on how
much you sweat during exercise, the duration of your exercise and the type of activity
you're engaged in.
During long bouts of intense exercise, it's best to use a sports drink that contains
sodium, as this will help replace sodium lost in sweat and reduce the chances of
developing hyponatremia, which can be life-threatening. Also, continue to replace
fluids after you're finished exercising.
 Environment. Hot or humid weather can make you sweat and requires
additional intake of fluid. Heated indoor air also can cause your skin to lose moisture

during wintertime. Further, altitudes greater than 8,200 feet (2,500 meters) may
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trigger increased urination and more rapid breathing, which use up more of your fluid
reserves.
 Illnesses or health conditions. Signs of illnesses, such as fever, vomiting and
diarrhea, cause your body to lose additional fluids. In these cases you should drink
more water and may even need oral rehydration solutions, such as Gatorade,
Powerade or CeraLyte. Also, you may need increased fluid intake if you develop
certain conditions, including bladder infections or urinary tract stones. On the other
hand, some conditions such as heart failure and some types of kidney, liver and
adrenal diseases may impair excretion of water and even require that you limit your
fluid intake.
 Pregnancy or breast-feeding. Women who are expecting or breast-feeding
need additional fluids to stay hydrated. Large amounts of fluid are used especially
when nursing. The Institute of Medicine recommends that pregnant women drink 2.3
liters (about 10 cups) of fluids daily and women who breast-feed consume 3.1 liters
(about 13 cups) of fluids a day.
Beyond the tap: Other sources of water
Although it's a great idea to keep water within reach at all times, you don't need to
rely only on what you drink to satisfy your fluid needs. What you eat also provides a
significant portion of your fluid needs. On average, food provides about 20 percent of
total water intake, while the remaining 80 percent comes from water and beverages of
all kinds.
For example, many fruits and vegetables, such as watermelon and tomatoes, are 90
percent to 100 percent water by weight. Beverages such as milk and juice also are
composed mostly of water. Even beer, wine and caffeinated beverages — such as
coffee, tea or soda — can contribute, but these should not be a major portion of your
daily total fluid intake. Water is one of your best bets because it's calorie-free,
inexpensive and readily available.
Staying safely hydrated

It's generally not a good idea to use thirst alone as a guide for when to drink. By the
time you become thirsty, it's possible to already be slightly dehydrated. Further, be
aware that as you get older your body is less able to sense dehydration and send your
brain signals of thirst. Excessive thirst and increased urination can be signs of a more
serious medical condition. Talk to your doctor if you experience either.
To ward off dehydration and make sure your body has the fluids it needs, make water
your beverage of choice. Nearly every healthy adult can consider the following:
 Drink a glass of water with each meal and between each meal.
 Hydrate before, during and after exercise.
 Substitute sparkling water for alcoholic drinks at social gatherings.
If you drink water from a bottle, thoroughly clean or replace the bottle often.
Though uncommon, it is possible to drink too much water. When your kidneys are
unable to excrete the excess water, the electrolyte (mineral) content of the blood is
diluted, resulting in low sodium levels in the blood, a condition called hyponatremia.
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Endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, who drink large amounts of water are
at higher risk of hyponatremia. In general, though, drinking too much water is rare in
healthy adults who consume an average American diet.
If you're concerned about your fluid intake, check with your doctor or a registered
dietitian. He or she can help you determine the amount of water that's best for you.
Unit 4
FUNCTIONAL FOOD
1. Introduction
The primary role of diet is to provide sufficient nutrients to meet the nutritional
requirements of an individual. There is now increasing scientific evidence to support
the hypothesis that some foods and food components have beneficial physiological
and psychological effects over and above the provision of the basic nutrients. Today,
nutrition science has moved on from the classical concepts of avoiding nutrient
deficiencies and basic nutritional adequacy to the concept of "positive" or "optimal"
nutrition. The research focus has shifted more to the identification of biologically

active components in foods that have the potential to optimise physical and mental
well being and which may also reduce the risk of disease. Many traditional food
products including fruits, vegetables, soya, whole grains and milk have been found to
contain components with potential health benefits. In addition to these foods, new
foods are being developed to enhance or incorporate these beneficial components for
their health benefits or desirable physiological effects.
2. What are functional foods?
The concept of functional foods was born in Japan. In the 1980s, health authorities in
Japan recognised that an improved quality of life must accompany increasing life
expectancy for the expanding number of elderly people in the population if health
care costs were to be controlled. The concept of foods that were developed
specifically to promote health or reduce the risk of disease was introduced.
Functional foods have not as yet been defined by legislation in Europe. Generally,
they are considered as those foods which are intended to be consumed as part of the
normal diet and that contain biologically active components which offer the potential
of enhanced health or reduced risk of disease. Examples of functional foods include
foods that contain specific minerals, vitamins, fatty acids or dietary fibre, foods with
added biologically active substances such as phytochemicals or other antioxidants
and probiotics that have live beneficial cultures (see Annex).
As interest in this category of foods has grown, new products have appeared and
interest has turned to the development of standards and guidelines for the
development and promotion of such foods.
3. Why do we need functional foods?
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Consumer interest in the relationship between diet and health has increased
substantially in Europe. There is much greater recognition today that people can help
themselves and their families to reduce the risk of illness and disease and to maintain
their state of health and well being through a healthy lifestyle, including the diet.
Ongoing support for the important role of foods such as fruits and vegetables and
wholegrain cereals in disease prevention and the latest research on dietary

antioxidants and combinations of protective substances in plants has helped to
provide the impetus for further developments in the functional food market in
Europe.
Trends in population demographics and socio-economic changes also point to the
need for foods with added health benefits. An increase in life expectancy, resulting in
an increase in the number of elderly and the desire for an improved quality of life, as
well as increasing costs of health care, have stimulated governments, researchers,
health professionals and the food industry to see how these changes can be managed
more effectively. There is already a wide range of foods available to today's
consumer but now the impetus is to identify those functional foods that have the
potential to improve health and well-being, reduce the risk from, or delay the onset
of, major diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer and osteoporosis.
Combined with a healthy lifestyle, functional foods can make a positive contribution
to health and well being.
4. Conclusion
Functional foods offer great potential to improve health and/or help prevent certain
diseases when taken as part of a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle. The subject of
health claims is becoming increasingly important and there is broad consensus that
there needs to be a regulatory framework in the EU that will protect consumers,
promote fair trade and encourage product innovation in the food industry. The
research opportunities in nutrition to explore the relationship between a food or a
food component and an improved state of health and well-being, or reduction of
disease, present the greatest challenge to scientists now and in the future. The
communication of health benefits to consumers is also of critical importance so that
they have the knowledge to make informed choices about the foods they eat and
enjoy.
Bibliography
/>Unit 5
The Science of Beer Making
Today, beer is consumed in vast amounts in this country, and beer making is largely

automated as in all mass produced products. Despite the sophisticated machinery that
is used in brewing beer, it's still essentially the same procedures that have been used
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for hundreds of years. However, beer making has become very sophisticated because
of the advances in knowledge that has resulted from advances in science. Prior to,
and even during the 1800's, there were many who knew how beer could be made, but
none knew of the science behind each step. It was not until the 19th. Centuries that it
was realized that during germination, of cereal grains, that enzymes were released
that would not break down not only the barley starch and protein into simple sugars
and amino acids, but would also do the same for other carbohydrates, such as potato,
corn and wheat. This realization cheapened the cost of making beer since germinated
barley is a greater investment than the utilization of potato, corn and wheat. It would
not be until the 19
th
Century that it would be known that yeasts were the organisms
that actually were responsible for the fermentation process.
Although the process of fermentation had been used for thousands of years, it was
thought to be a magical rather than a material process. As a result, many rituals and
superstitions developed to direct and control fermentation. By the17th Century, it was
known that yeast was present during fermentation, but its role was controversial.
There were two opposing views on this subject. One view was that yeast was required
for the fermentation process, while the other argued that the process was purely
chemical. It was not until Louis Pasteur's work, in the 1850's and 1860's, was this
argument resolved. Pasteur was asked by the distillers of Lille, where the
manufacture of of alcohol, from beet sugar, was an important local industry, to
determine the problem of lactic acid production in their alcohol. Upon examination of
the fermentation product under the microscope, Pasteur was able to observe the usual
yeast cells, but also noted that there were a large number of smaller rod- and sphere-
shaped cells. When Pasteur placed a small amount of this material in a sugar solution,
a vigorous lactic acid fermentation occurred along with the formation of a grayish

deposit in the solution which proved to be the rod- and sphere-shaped cells.
Successive transfers of these cells always resulted in production of lactic acid
fermentation and an increase in the number of cells. Pasteur argued that the cells were
a new "yeast" that specifically converted sugar to lactic acid during its growth. It
would be years later before it was understood that the new "yeast" were actually
bacteria. Using a similar method, Pasteur studied a number of organisms and their
fermentative processes. He was able to show that the different fermentation products
produced were invariably accompanied by specific microorganisms. This discovery,
however, had further significance. Just as the different microorganisms caused
different fermentation products from sugar, so did different diseases arise as a result
of different microorganisms, and that these microorganisms did not arise
spontaneously, as once believed, but that each microorganism was derived from pre-
existing cells of the same type. This also led to the concept that by destroying the
microorganisms in food products and beverages or by preventing their appearance in
sterile products, spoilage could be prevented. This concept led to the heat treatment
of food products and beverages that we now know as pasteurization.
In the beginning of beer making, beer was an alcoholic beverage with the flavor of
malt and grain. It was flat, slightly sweet and would spoil quickly. It would not be
until the 8th. Century, that brewers in central Europe found that the addition of Hops
flowers preserved the beer and gave it the slightly bitter taste that made it more
palatable. However, Hops was not the only bitter additive used. Various cultures used
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other bitters; tannins from Oak and Ash trees were used in Scandinavia; cinnamon in
southern Europe and in America sweet fennel, licorice or sassafras was used.
Nevertheless, by the end of the 15
th
Century, it was Hops that became the standard
bitter and preservative added to beer. Only in England was there resistance to the use
of Hops, but they, too, accepted it by the end of the 16
th

Century.
With the genetic manipulation of yeasts, numerous varietal strains have been bred.
This, along with modifications in the brewing process has led to different types of
beers. Those most often seen in North America include:
• Lager . Beers made with yeast that settle on the bottom (Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis) of the container used. Thus, all the yeast and other material settles on
the bottom which results in a clear beer. Most American beers are lagers.
• Pilsner . A colorless lager beer originally brewed in the city of Pilsen. Water
used for this style of beer tend to be harder, with a higher calcium and magnesium
content than water used for lager. The color of pilsner is also lighter than that of lager
beer.
• Ale . Beers made with yeast that floats (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) to the top of
the brewing vats, resulting in a cloudier beer. They tend to have a higher alcohol
content than lagers.
• Stout . A very dark, almost black ale. The dark color and roasted flavor is
derived from the roasted barley, and/or roasted malt. Beer historians consider it to be
the descendant of the Porter ale.
• Porter . A very dark ale. The darker color and special flavor comes from
toasting the malt before brewing. This usually results in a stronger taste and higher
alcohol content. Considered by beer historians to have evolved into the Stout ale
Processing
1. Measuring and grinding the barley and specialty grains which in this case for
our Sawtooth ale which includes rye, wheat, Munich and caramel malts in addition to
the barley.
2. The ground grain is fed by an overhead tube and auger system into our mash
tun. At the point of exit from our auger we mix it with hot (165°) water from the 'hot
liquor' tank. The 'mashing' process takes about 120 minutes and uses about 600
pounds of crushed grain per 310 gal. of brew
Manipulating the temperature of a mixture of water and a starch source (known as
mash) in order to convert starches to fermentable sugars. The mash goes through one

or more stages of being raised to a desired temperature and left at the temperature for
a period of time. During each of these stages, enzymes (alpha and beta amylase
primarily) break down the long dextrins that are present in the mash into simpler
fermentable sugars, such as glucose. The number of stages required in mashing
depends on the starch source used to produce the beer. Most malted barley used today
requires only a single stage
3. ' Sparging': A process of rinsing the malted grain to remove any remaining malt
sugars. From the French work esparger, "to sprinkle, uses 170° water to rinse out the
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grain sugars from the crushed grain. It is these sugars that when combined with yeast
and allowed to sit (ferment), produce an alcoholic beverage (beer).
The process extracts the fermentable liquid, known as wort, from the mash. During
sparging the mash is contained in a lauter-tun, which has a porous barrier through
which wort but not grain can pass. The brewer allows the wort to flow past the porous
barrier and collects the wort. The brewer also adds water to the lauter-tun and lets it
flow through the mash and collects it as well. This rinses fermentable liquid from the
grain in the mash and allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid
from the mash as possible. The leftover grain is not usually further used in making
the beer. However, in some places second or even third mashes would be performed
with the not quite spent grains. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a
weaker beer
4. The ' wort' is pumped from the mash tun (left) to the 'kettle' (right). Stainless
screens at the bottom of the mash tun leave the spent grains behind. The liquid
resulting from sparging, or rinsing of the malt with water to come up with a
fermentable sugar solution. The wort is heated to destroy bacteria, then cooled and
mixed with yeast to attain the desired outcome of beer
Boiling sterilises the wort and increases the concentration of sugar in the wort. The
wort collected from sparging is put in a kettle and boiled, usually for about one hour.
During boiling, water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of
the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer.

Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage as
well as coagulating proteins passing into the wort, especially from malted barley,
which could otherwise cause protein 'hazes' in the finished beer. Hops are added
during boiling in order to extract bitterness, flavour and aroma from them. Hops may
be added at more than one point during the boil. As hops are boiled longer, they
contribute more bitterness but less hop flavour and aroma to the beer.
5. Pitching yeast from a finished beer to use for this next brew. We usually end
up using the yeast for about 5 batches before retiring it for new.
Yeast: The bacteria that converts the malt sugar to alcohol, used by chance until the
18th century, when specific types of y east became cultivated for brewing
6. 'fermentation' process. In the heat exchanger, the 'wort' is being pumped
from the kettle to one of the fermenters .as it is being quickly cooled to a temperature
of around 70° and being aerated with oxygen to start the fermentation
During fermentation, the wort becomes beer. Once the boiled wort is cooled and in a
fermenter, yeast is propagated in the wort and it is left to ferment, which requires a
week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to
producing alcohol, fine particulate matter suspended in the wort settles during
fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer
clear. Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages, primary and secondary.
Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is
transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of secondary fermentation.
Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging
or greater clarity.
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7. Pasteurisation is an optional stage of the beer process in which the beer is
slowly heated and cooled to kill off any existing bacteria in order to maintain longer
shelf life. This is generally a stage not included in higher end beers, but is quite
common in mass-produced beers such as American-Style lite beers, and other mass-
produced lagers. It is less common in ales as pasteurization can change the many
flavours.

8. Packaging, final stage of the brewing process, prepares the beer for
distribution and consumption. During packaging, beer is put into the vessel from
which it will be served: a keg, cask, can or bottle. Beer is carbonated in its package,
either by forcing carbon dioxide into the beer or by "natural carbonation". Naturally
carbonated beers may have a small amount of fresh wort/sugar and/or yeast added to
them during packaging. This causes a short period of fermentation which produces
carbon dioxide.
9. Lastly, the spent grains (after shoveling out of the mash tun) are waiting for
pick up by a local farmer and the spent hops which are very acidic are used by local
organic growers for mulching
Beer Terms
Adjuncts: Fermentable ingredients and flavorings other than malted barley such as
rice, corn, brewing sugar and herbs
Ale: Worlds oldest style of beer that is top fermented, usually at 60-70°F.
Alt beer: "Old" in German, a top fermenting style of German beer.
Bitter: Term for 'pale' type beers that use generous amounts of hops; commonly
found in pale ales, or India pale ales
Bock: Strong beer, origin in Germany and the Netherlands.
Bottle-conditioned: A beer that undergoes a secondary ferment in the bottle
Caramel malt: A reddish-tinged malt that imparts a good sweet "nutty and chewy"
flavor to finished beer. The type used in lager brewing is called caramalt
Corn Syrup: An adjunct used to increase carbonation in finishing beers and also to
increase alcohol content
Draft Beer: Beer stored and drawn from kegs
Ester: Flavour compounds made by the yeast turning the malt sugars into alcohol and
carbon dioxide. Esters may be fruity or spicy.
Grist: The coarse powder made from malt that has been crushed or 'milled' in the
brewery prior to mashing
Hallertauer: A popular hops, originating in Germany.
Hops: A bitter, oily herb used to flavor beer and prevent spoilage. It is related to the

Cannabis and Nettle family. Amount and variety of hops used has a great impact on
the sweetness or bitterness of the taste
Hydrometer: Device to measure the specific gravity of the wort and beer, before and
after brewing, to determine the alcohol content, and also to determine how much
sugar has been converted to alcohol
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India Pale Ale: Also known as IPA, a highly hopped beer developed by the Brits for
shipment to India; the highly hopped brew would survive transport and keep well for
their troops
Lager: A brew that undergoes a secondary 'cold' fermenting process; from the
German word meaning 'store'. The cold-conditioning encourages the yeast to settle
out, increases carbonation, and produces a smooth, clean-tasting beer
Lambic: Of Belgian origin, a beer made by spontaneous fermentation. Often includes
fruits as adjuncts
Malt: Barley and other grains that have been partially germinated, then dried, to
allow starches to be converted to usable sugar.
Nitrogen gas: An adjunct used to promote a foaming head in some kegged beer, and
now, with new technologies, in some bottles and cans (Guiness).
Pilsner: Or Pilsner or Pils, an international brand name for a light lager. In the Czech
republic, the term is meant only for beers brewed in Pilsen or Pilzen where the style
was perfected
Porter: Dark brown or black beer originating in London; its name comes from the
street-market porters who originally drank it
Stout: Once an English term to mean the "stoutest" beer of a brewery; early origins
identified it with porter style beer. Now generally considered an Irish style of a
sweet, very dark and rich beer
Trappist: Ales brewed by monks originally of the Trappist order now mostly located
in Belgium; known for their old open fermented yeasts. A subject of itself; try a
Chimay "blue" for an explanation.
Wheat beer: Beers blended with wheat grains typically have a distinctive fruitier

tartness; usually utilized with low-hopped malts
1. Early beer was flat, not very palatable and also spoiled quickly. Yet, people
continued to drink it. Other than for the obvious reason, what was another reason for
continuing to drink beer?
2. It was a long time before the early spoilage of beer was remedied. How did
brewers finally keep beer from quickly spoiling?
3. Various cultures developed beer making, independently. Although the process
by which they made beer was similar, one obvious difference was in the grain that
was used for malting. Name some cultures that used grains other than barley for
making beer.
4. Which is older, beer or wine? Why do you believe this to be the case?
5. Why is production of a standard quality wine more difficult to achieve than a
standard quality beer?
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Unit 6
Greenhouse effect
The Warming Greenhouse
Many different things can affect the climate of our planet. Understanding more how
the Earth works can help us understand how our planet acts like a greenhouse and
how changes in the balance of the Earth system can change the climate.
The Sun is the source of all energy on our planet. But many different factors affect
how much of the sun’s energy is let into the Earth system and how much of it is let
out into space. Making sure that just enough is let in and out is a delicate balance.
Currently the system is not in balance and more heat is let in than is let out.
When the Sun's Energy gets into the Atmosphere
Have you ever worn a dark colored shirt on a warm sunny day? Your dark shirt will
absorb more heat than your friend’s light colored shirt. That will make you warmer.
On a larger scale, this happens in the Earth system as well. Forests, lakes, oceans,
glaciers, deserts, and cities all absorb, reflect, and radiate heat differently.
Take a look at the picture of glaciers in the Himalayan Mountains. What color is the

ice? Is that color light or dark? What color is the land? Is it lighter or darker? —Light
colors reflect light back into space, while dark colors absorb heat, warming the Earth.
Albedo is the percentage of the Sun’s energy that is reflected back by a surface. The
type of surface that sunlight first encounters is the most important factor that affects
the warming or cooling of the planet. Light colored surfaces like ice have a high
albedo, while dark colored surfaces tend to have a lower albedo. What would happen
if the ice melted? Would Earth’s albedo be higher or lower? Would this cause Earth
to become cooler or warmer?
While it might be quite warm in the countryside on a summer day, it can get
unbearably hot in a nearby city! That’s because the buildings and pavement in cities
absorb loads of sunlight, much more than the countryside. These cities are called
“heat islands.” The countryside is also cooled by water evaporating from lakes and
given off by the plants in forests and fields. Cities have fewer plants and bodies of
water and so are not cooled very much by evaporation.
The Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gasses
Have you ever been inside a greenhouse on a cold winter day? It might be cold
outside, but inside the greenhouse lush green plants flourish in the warmth and
sunshine. Greenhouses are made of glass and are designed to hold heat inside. Our
planet's atmosphere traps energy just like a greenhouse. Energy from the Sun can
enter the Earth’s atmosphere, but not all of it can easily find its way out again.
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What blocks the Sun’s energy from escaping from the Earth? Unlike a greenhouse,
the Earth does not have a layer of glass over it! Instead, molecules in our atmosphere
called greenhouse gasses absorb the heat. Greenhouse gasses include water vapor,
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide. There may not be much of some
of these gasses in our atmosphere, but they can have a big impact. Each greenhouse
gas molecule is made of three or more atoms that are bonded loosely together. These
molecules are able to absorb heat, which makes them vibrate. They eventually release
the heat energy and it is often absorbed by another greenhouse gas molecule.
The greenhouse effect is useful because trapping some energy keeps the temperatures

on our planet mild and suitable for living things. Without its atmosphere and the
greenhouse effect, the average temperature at the surface of the Earth would be zero
degrees Fahrenheit. However, too many greenhouse gases can cause the temperature
to increase out of control. Such is the case on Venus where greenhouse gases are
abundant and the average temperature at the surface is more than 855 degrees
Fahrenheit (457 degrees Celsius).
You might hear people talking about the greenhouse effect as if it is a bad thing. It is
not a bad thing, but people are concerned because Earth’s greenhouse is warming up
very rapidly. This is happening because we are currently adding more greenhouse
gases to our atmosphere, causing an increased greenhouse effect. The increased
Greenhouse Effect is causing changes in our planet that can affect our lives.
Are Climates Changing?
Like many questions in science, the question of how our planet is warming includes
some parts that are very well understood and other parts that are not as well
understood. Scientists use what we know about how the Earth works to make a
special type of computer program called a global climate model. Global climate
models help us predict how global warming may affect our planet in dozens to
hundreds of years. To get the best predictions, scientists compare the results of many
different model experiments and check results with data we have observed. A
detailed outlook for the next 100 years is updated every few years by thousands of
experts from around the world.
Here are some things that we know:
• Greenhouse gases (such as water vapor and carbon dioxide) act to warm
Earth’s atmosphere by trapping heat and radiating some of it back toward the Earth
surface.
• The amount of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere is increasing. Carbon
dioxide has risen more than 30 percent since people started using fossil fuels and
levels are now the highest in more than 400,000 years.
• Earth’s average surface temperature has risen more than 1 degree Fahrenheit
(0.6 degrees Celsius) since 1900.

• The amount of sea ice in the Arctic has decreased severely over the last 50
years as the ice melts.
• Glaciers are melting.
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• Over 25 percent of the world’s coral reefs have already died due to warming
oceans.
• Earth will continue to warm as people use more fossil fuels and the amount of
greenhouse gases increases
Here’s what models have predicted for the next 100 years:
• Global temperatures may rise 2 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (about 1 to 6 degrees
Celsius).
• Sea level may rise up to 35 inches (88 centimeters).
• More moisture from the oceans will evaporate into the air, which means more
rain for some areas and more drought for others.
• Some places will warm more than other places, and some places might even
become cooler.
• There will be less cold days in wintry places and more summer heat waves.
• Vermont’s maple trees could vanish within a generation as climates change.
• Places like Glacier National Park in Montana will have no more glaciers; the
ice there is expected to melt completely by 2030.
We may know that the Earth will continue to warm as the amount of greenhouse
gasses increases. But what we do not know is how this will affect people, plants, and
animals. Some regions will become considerably hotter or cooler, or wetter or drier,
than others. Some places might have stronger storms or stronger droughts. All these
changes can affect the way people live their lives and the way ecosystems exist.
Word formation
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Unit 6
What is Bioethanol?
The principle fuel used as a petrol substitute for road transport vehicles is bioethanol.

Bioethanol fuel is mainly produced by the sugar fermentation process, although it can
also be manufactured by the chemical process of reacting ethylene with steam.
The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol come from fuel or energy
crops. These crops are grown specifically for energy use and include corn, maize and
wheat crops, waste straw, willow and popular trees, sawdust, reed canary grass, cord
grasses, jerusalem artichoke, myscanthus and sorghum plants. There is also ongoing
research and development into the use of municipal solid wastes to produce ethanol
fuel.
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear colourless liquid, it is biodegradable,
low in toxicity and causes little environmental pollution if spilt. Ethanol burns to
produce carbon dioxide and water. Ethanol is a high octane fuel and has replaced lead
as an octane enhancer in petrol. By blending ethanol with gasoline we can also
oxygenate the fuel mixture so it burns more completely and reduces polluting
emissions. Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United States. The most
common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle engines require no
modifications to run on E10 and vehicle warranties are unaffected also. Only flexible
fuel vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol and 15% petrol blends (E85).
What are the benefits of Bioethanol?
Bioethanol has a number of advantages over conventional fuels. It comes from a
renewable resource i.e. crops and not from a finite resource and the crops it derives
from can grow well in the UK (like cereals, sugar beet and maize). Another benefit
over fossil fuels is the greenhouse gas emissions. The road transport network
accounts for 22% (www.foodfen.org.uk) of all greenhouse gas emissions and through
the use of bioethanol, some of these emissions will be reduced as the fuel crops
absorb the CO2 they emit through growing. Also, blending bioethanol with petrol
will help extend the life of the UK’s diminishing oil supplies and ensure greater fuel
security, avoiding heavy reliance on oil producing nations. By encouraging
bioethanol’s use, the rural economy would also receive a boost from growing the
necessary crops. Bioethanol is also biodegradable and far less toxic that fossil fuels.
In addition, by using bioethanol in older engines can help reduce the amount of

carbon monoxide produced by the vehicle thus improving air quality. Another
advantage of bioethanol is the ease with which it can be easily integrated into the
existing road transport fuel system. In quantities up to 5%, bioethanol can be blended
with conventional fuel without the need of engine modifications. Bioethanol is
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produced using familiar methods, such as fermentation, and it can be distributed
using the same petrol forecourts and transportation systems as before.
Bioethanol Production
Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation
processes. Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from
the plant cell walls known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. In order to produce
sugars from the biomass, the biomass is pre-treated with acids or enzymes in order to
reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant structure. The cellulose and
the hemi cellulose portions are broken down (hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids
into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into ethanol. The lignin which is also present
in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the ethanol production plants boilers.
There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from biomass. These are
concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis.
Concentrated Acid Hydrolysis Process
The Arkanol process works by adding 70-77% sulphuric acid to the biomass that has
been dried to a 10% moisture content. The acid is added in the ratio of 1.25 acid to 1
biomass and the temperature is controlled to 50C. Water is then added to dilute the
acid to 20-30% and the mixture is again heated to 100C for 1 hour. The gel produced
from this mixture is then pressed to release an acid sugar mixture and a
chromatographic column is used to separate the acid and sugar mixture.
Dilute Acid Hydrolysis
The dilute acid hydrolysis process is one of the oldest, simplest and most efficient
methods of producing ethanol from biomass. Dilute acid is used to hydrolyse the
biomass to sucrose. The first stage uses 0.7% sulphuric acid at 190C to hydrolyse the
hemi cellulose present in the biomass. The second stage is optimised to yield the

more resistant cellulose fraction. This is achieved by using 0.4% sulphuric acid at
215C.The liquid hydrolates are then neutralised and recovered from the process.
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Instead of using acid to hydrolyse the biomass into sucrose, we can use enzymes to
break down the biomass in a similar way. However this process is very expensive and
is still in its early stages of development.
Wet Milling Processes
Corn can be processed into ethanol by either the dry milling or the wet milling
process. In the wet milling process, the corn kernel is steeped in warm water, this
helps to break down the proteins and release the starch present in the corn and helps
to soften the kernel for the milling process. The corn is then milled to produce germ,
fibre and starch products. The germ is extracted to produce corn oil and the starch
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fraction undergoes centrifugation and saccharifcation to produce gluten wet cake. The
ethanol is then extracted by the distillation process. The wet milling process is
normally used in factories producing several hundred million gallons of ethanol every
Year.
Dry Milling Process
The dry milling process involves cleaning and breaking down the corn kernel into
fine particles using a hammer mill process. This creates a powder with a course flour
type consistency. The powder contains the corn germ, starch and fibre. In order to
produce a sugar solution the mixture is then hydrolysed or broken down into sucrose
sugars using enzymes or a dilute acid. The mixture is then cooled and yeast is added
in order to ferment the mixture into ethanol. The dry milling process is normally used
in factories producing less than 50 million gallons of ethanol every Year.
Sugar Fermentation Process
The hydrolysis process breaks down the cellulostic part of the biomass or corn into
sugar solutions that can then be fermented into ethanol. Yeast is added to the
solution, which is then heated. The yeast contains an enzyme called invertase, which
acts as a catalyst and helps to convert the sucrose sugars into glucose and fructose

(both C6H12O6).
The chemical reaction is shown below:
The fructose and glucose sugars then react with another enzyme called zymase,
which is also contained in the yeast to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
The chemical reaction is shown below:
The fermentation process takes around three days to complete and is carried out at a
temperature of between 250C and 300C.
Fractional Distillation Process
The ethanol, which is produced from the fermentation process, still contains a
significant quantity of water, which must be removed. This is achieved by using the
fractional distillation process. The distillation process works by boiling the water and
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ethanol mixture. Since ethanol has a lower boiling point (78.3C) compared to that of
water (100C), the ethanol turns into the vapour state before the water and can be
condensed and separated.
Unit 7
Top 10 Functional Food Trends In America
'Functional foods' are those that provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition and
more people are recognizing that they are an important part of a lifestyle that
leads to long-term fitness and even longevity.
Liz Sloan, writing in Food Technology, has identified the top 10 trends in
functional foods. The article noted that a majority of Americans, 69 percent, are
incorporating foods into a preventative lifestyle, while 27 percent are utilizing
food as a treatment to manage a preexisting health condition. One-third of
shoppers (36 percent) are trying to reduce the risk of developing a health
condition, follow a doctor’s advice (30 percent) or manage/treat a specific
condition on their own (25 percent), according to the Food Marketing Institute¹
data.
1. Healthy Household Halo – Americans are looking to create a healthy household.
Approximately 57 percent of shoppers are making a lot of effort to eat healthier².

With half (53 percent) of adults controlling their diet – 61 percent for weight, 36
percent cholesterol, 22 percent blood sugar, 18 percent high blood pressure, and 14
percent diabetes³. Babies and young children also drive healthier household eating.
Popular trends include DHA for brain and eye development and probiotics for
digestive health. In recent years, sales of healthful kids’ foods have outsold regular
kids’ products 3:14. With 28 percent of parents admitting that they have an
overweight child and one in eight kids having two or more risk factors for heart
disease later in life, the No. 3 concern of moms, after immunity and
growth/development, is now healthy kids foods.
2. Natural End Benefits – Recent scientific validation of the health benefits of
superfoods have convinced consumers that key benefits are, in fact, naturally
achievable, thus creating a new trend to whole food nutrition. New superfoods
include:
• Blood Oranges
• Goji Berries
• Seabuckthorn
• Mangosteens
• Garbanzo Beans
• Specialty Mushrooms
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3. Balancing The “Bul-get” – The U.S. weight loss market—projected to grow
from $58 billion to $69 billion by 2010—is undergoing a sea change as
consumers shift from dieting/weight loss programs to managing weight via
smaller portions, specific food restrictions, and light/low-fat and super-satiating
foods 5. Products providing, satiety, the state of feeling full or gratified, are now a
hot commodity.
4. Contemporary Conditions – As 31 million Americans turn age 65 over the next 10
years, and the oldest of the 76 million baby boomers enter their 60s, the demand
for condition-specific foods will skyrocket. Conditions such as high cholesterol,
high blood pressure, osteoporosis and diabetes have created a need for functional

foods to manage/treat these conditions. Boomers are looking to consume more
omega-3s, polyphenols, flavanols, and plant sterols as part of a balanced lifestyle.
5. Proactive Lifestyles – With the majority of consumers trying to live a preventive
lifestyle, fortified foods and beverages have quickly become a way of life.
Consumers are making a strong effort to get more vitamin C, calcium, B
vitamins, fiber, antioxidants, vitamin E, omega-3s/DHA/fish oil, vitamin A,
potassium, iron, and folic acid from the food and beverages they consume6.
Proactive lifestyles have also created a need for functional foods that enhance
skin, hair, and nails from the inside out. The U.S. “cosmeceutical” market is
expected to grow from $14.9 billion to $17.2 billion by 20107.
6. Simpler, Greener, & Cleaner – Many consumers are taking a simpler, more-
natural approach to the foods they eat, looking for foods with only a few
ingredients and as fresh and close to the farm as time and budget will allow.
Hormones topped the list of ingredients that consumers were least comfortable
consuming.
Organic food and beverages sales grew 13 percent in 2007 and are expected to
continue at double-digit growth through 20108. Consumers believe local products
are fresher, have fewer pesticides, and in general are of higher quality9. Whole
and heritage grains are among the ingredients that best symbolize the new natural
direction.
7. Smart Treats – With two-thirds (66 percent) of consumers trying to eat snacks
with more nutrition, 63 percent looking for lower-calorie favorites, and one-
quarter looking for 100-calorie snack packs, healthier snack options is a “must
have” for today’s consumer. Healthy snack sales outpaced traditional snacks
nearly 3:1 over the last few years10.
8. Sensitivity Training – The number of adults who perceive that they, or their
children, suffer from food allergies, intolerances, and sensitivities continues to
grow, creating lucrative markets, disproportionate to their true medical base. The
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70 million Americans suffering from a digestive ailment expect to see more

products fortified with fiber and gluten-free. Foods carrying a digestive
health/probiotic clam reached $712 million in 200711.
9. Vitality Treadmill – Energy was the top reason consumers made a dietary
change last year. More than half of adults (55 percent) need something to give
them an energy boost several times a week, 48 percent to increase their
stamina/physical endurance, 46 percent to help them wake up, 43 percent to
improve mental alertness, and 40 percent to keep them awake12.
Of all new functional food concepts, consumers are most interested in new
products that improve mental performance13. Just over one-third of consumers
drink energy beverages for a mental boost14. Ginseng, guarana, and taurine are
among the key ingredients in emerging beverages. Candies, gums, and chocolates
are also gaining popularity within this market.
10. New Venues – Without a doubt, the most important factor driving the healthy
and functional foods market mainstream has been the increased accessibility of
healthy products through additional channels. With today’s grab-and-go lifestyle
and rising gas prices, convenience stores have become a powerhouse for sales of
some healthy products. Convenience stores have instituted new programs
designed to increase sales of these types of products.
What is Kombucha?
Kombucha is a living health drink made by fermenting tea and sugar with the
kombucha culture. The result can taste like something between sparkling apple cider
and champagne, depending on what kind of tea you use. It's not what you'd imagine
fermented tea to taste like.
The origins of Kombucha have become lost in the mists of time. It is thought to have
originated in the Far East, probably China, and has been consumed there for at least
two thousand years. The first recorded use of kombucha comes from China in 221
BC during the Tsin Dynasty. It was known as "The Tea of Immortality".
It has been used in Eastern Europe, Russia and Japan for several centuries. It's from
Japan in 415 AD that the name kombucha is said to have come. A Korean physician
called Kombu or Kambu treated the Emperor Inyko with the tea and it took his name,

"Kombu" and "cha" meaning tea. Russia has a long tradition of using a healing drink
called "Tea Kvass" made from a "Japanese Mushroom".
From Russia it spread to Prussia, Poland, Germany and Denmark but it seems to have
died out during World War Two. After the war Dr Rudolph Skelnar created renewed
interest in kombucha in Germany when he used it in his practice to treat cancer
patients, metabolic disorders, high blood pressure and diabetes.
The Kombucha culture looks like a beige or white rubbery pancake. It's often called a
'scoby' which stands for ' symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts.The culture is
placed in sweetened black or green tea and turns a bowl full of sweet tea into a bowl
full of vitamins, minerals, enzymes and health-giving organic acids.
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As the Kombucha culture digests the sugar it produces a range of organic acids like
glucuronic acid, gluconic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, butyric acid, malic acid and
usnic acid; vitamins, particularly B vitamins and vitamin C; as well as amino acids,
enzymes. And of course there are all the benefits of the probiotic microorganisms
themselves. The Kombucha culture is a biochemical powerhouse in your kitchen.
You might wonder if fermenting tea with yeasts would produce an alcoholic
beverage. It's a good question. The yeasts do produce alcohol but the bacteria in the
culture turn the alcohol to organic acids. Only minute quantities of alcohol, typically
1% by volume remains in the kombucha brew.
With every brew you make the kombucha forms a new layer or scoby on the surface
of the liquid. These can be left to thicken the scoby or can be divided, giving you
spare cultures that you can store in some sweet tea in the fridge in case something
should happen to your active culture. Or you might want to pass on spare Kombucha
cultures to friends or use a new scoby to start another batch of kombucha.
Kombucha and Health
Many health claims are made for kombucha but there is less research on the benefits
of kombucha than there is on fermented milk products. It has certainly been shown to
have similar antibiotic, antiviral and anti fungal properties in lab tests. In rats it’s
been shown to protect against stress and improve liver function. There is a lot of

experiential evidence from people who have been using kombucha over many years.
Many of the benefits reported include improvements in energy levels, metabolic
disorders, allergies, cancer, digestive problems, candidiasis, hypertension, HIV,
chronic fatigue and arthritis. It ‘s also used externally for skin problems and as a hair
wash among other things.
The Organic Acids
Glucuronic acid ……………………………………………………………
The body's most important detoxifier. When toxins enter the liver this acid binds
them to it and flushes them out through the kidneys. Once bound by glucuronic acid
toxins cannot escape. A product of the oxidation process of glucose, glucuronic acid
is one of the more significant constituents of Kombucha. As a detoxifying agent it's
one of the few agents that can cope with pollution from the products of the petroleum
industry, including all the plastics, herbicides, pesticides and resins. It kidnaps the
phenols in the liver, which are then eliminated easily by the kidneys. Kombucha can
be very helpful for allergy sufferers. Another by-product of glucuronic acid are the
glucosamines, the structures associated with cartilage, collagen and the fluids which
lubricate the joints. It is this function that makes Kombucha so effective against
arthritis.
Lactic Acid………………………………………………………………….
Essential for the digestive system. Assist blood circulation, helps prevent bowel
decay and constipation. Aids in balancing acids and alkaline in the body and believed
to help in the prevention of cancer by helping to regulate blood pH levels.
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Acetic Acid………………………………………………………………….
A powerful preservative and it inhibits harmful bacteria.
Usnic Acid…………………………………………………………………
A natural antibiotic that can be effective against many viruses.
Oxalic Acid ………………………………………………………………
An effective preservative and encourages the intercellular production of energy.
Malic acid …………………………………………………………………

Helps detoxify the liver.
Gluconic Acid ……………………………………………………………
Produced by the bacteria, it can break down to caprylic acid is of great benefit to
sufferers of candidiasis and other yeast infections such as thrush.
Butyric acid ………………………………………………………………
Produced by the yeast, protects human cellular membranes and combined with
Gluconic acid strengthens the walls of the gut to combat yeast infections like candida.
Types of Tea for Kombucha
Kombucha requires tea for its fermentation (Camellia Sinensis). That's real tea not
herbal tea. It can be also be sensitive to strong aromatic oils. A tea like Earl Grey that
contains Bergamot oil, can sometimes kill or badly affect the culture. There are
several different kinds of tea that give different results from lighter tastes to stronger
more cider like tastes.
Black Tea……………………………………………………………………
Black tea is made from leaves that have been fully fermented. The leaf is spread out
and left to wilt naturally, before being fired, producing a deep, rich flavour and an
amber brew.
Oolong Tea………………………………………………………………….
Oolong tea is half way between green tea and black tea. It's gently rolled after picking
and allowed to partially ferment until the edges of the leaves start to turn brown.
Oolong combines the taste and colour of black and green tea.
Green Tea…………………………………………………………………
Green tea is withered then steamed or heated to prevent oxidation and then rolled and
dried. It is characterized by a delicate taste, light green colour. The Japanese tea
Sencha makes an especially fine kombucha.
White Tea…………………………………………………………………….
White Tea is the rarest and most delicate of tea. Plucked forty-eight hours or less
between the time the first buds become fully mature and the time they open. Unlike
black and green teas, white tea isn't rolled or steamed, but simply aired dried in the
sun, this preserves more of its antioxidant properties. White tea has about three times

as many antioxidant polyphenols as green. White tea represents the least processed
form of tea.
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Role of Yeast in Production of Alcoholic Beverages
Although there is a distinction between beer, wine and liquor as well as other lesser
known alcoholic beverages, they share one thing in common. They are the
fermentation products of yeasts, mostly Saccharomyces cerevisiae or in the case of
beers, usually S. carlsburgiensis. Yeasts, as you recall, are not mycelial. They are
unicellular fungi that reproduce asexually by budding or fission. The reaction by
which alcoholic beverages are produced is generally referred to as fermentation and
may be summarized as:
Yeast + Glucose Alcohol (Ethanol) + CO2
This reaction is also important in baking bread, but the desired product is then the
carbon dioxide rather than alcohol. The production of alcohol occurs best in the
absence of oxygen. However, from the yeast's point of view, alcohol and carbon
dioxide are waste products, and as the yeast continues to grow and metabolize in the
sugar solution, the accumulation of alcohol will become toxic when it reaches a
concentration between 14-18%, thereby killing the yeast cells. This is the reason why
the percentage of alcohol in wine and beer can only be approximately 16%. In order
to produce beverages (liquor) with higher concentrations of alcohol, the fermented
products must be distilled.
The Wine Making Process
Wine making has been around for thousands of years. In its basic form, wine making
is a natural process that requires very little human intervention. Mother Nature
provides everything that is needed to make wine; it is up to humans to embellish,
improve, or totally obliterate what nature has provided, to which anyone with
extensive wine tasting experience can attest.
There are five basic components or steps to making wine: harvesting, crushing and
pressing, fermentation, clarification, and aging and bottling. Undoubtedly, one can
find endless deviations and variations along the way. In fact, it is the variants and

little deviations at any point in the process that make life interesting. They also make
each wine unique and ultimately contribute to the greatness or ignominy of any
particular wine. The steps for making white wine and red wine are essentially the
same, with one exception. The making of fortified or sparkling wines is also another
matter; both require additional human intervention to succeed and at this time, will
not be part of this discussion.
The Harvest
Harvesting or picking is certainly the first step in the actual wine making process.
Without fruit there would be no wine, and no fruit other than grapes can produce
annually a reliable amount of sugar to yield sufficient alcohol to preserve the
resulting beverage, nor have other fruits the requisite acids, esters and tannins to
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