Electronic Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (4-Volumes) P98 docx

904
Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
rapid emergence of the open, public Internet in
the years immediately following the publication
of that paper enabled an explosion of such extra-
organisational systems.
Yet corporations have seldom considered their
customers as stakeholders, and even government
agencies frequently leave them aside from busi-
ness case evaluations. Organisations that want
to avoid the distrust impediment need to apply
the business case techniques in the bottom-right-
KDQGFRUQHURI([KLELWLQRUGHUWRUHÀHFWWKH
perspectives of all of the important stakeholders,
including human users and other individuals af-
fected by the scheme. Impact and risk assessment
activities need to encompass at least privacy, but
the scope may need to extend to broader social
and economic aspects such as accessibility, ac-
cidental discrimination against minorities, and
the need for workplace re-training.
Application
This chapter’s focus is the use of PETs as an adjunct
to corporate privacy strategy. The application of
PETs needs to be evaluated and a business case
developed. Because of the multi-stakeholder con-
WH[WDQGWKHGLI¿FXOWLHVRITXDQWLI\LQJPDQ\RI
WKHEHQH¿WVDQGFRVWVWKHUHOHYDQWEXVLQHVVFDVH
techniques are those in the bottom-right-hand
quadrant of Figure 1.
This sub-section applies to PETs the business

FDVHFRQFHSWVGLVFXVVHGDERYH,W¿UVWO\LGHQWL¿HV
various ways in which an organisation might seek
to use PETs as a means of overcoming distrust
by its staff or by relevant segments of the public,
particularly its customers or prospects. It then
FRQVLGHUVWKHNLQGVRIEHQH¿WVWKDWPD\EHDEOH
WR EH DFKLHYHG WKH FRVWV DQG RWKHU GLVEHQH¿WV
that may be incurred in the process, and the risks
involved. Finally, approaches to reaching a conclu-
sion about the proposal are examined.
Ways to Work with PETs
There are various ways in which organisations
can utilise PETs in their privacy strategy. They
include the following:
• fund research into or the development of
PETs:
• by the organisation itself;
• by others;
• provide or support awareness, education and
training in relation to the development, de-
ployment, installation and/or use of PETs;
• support open source licensing of PET soft
-
ware, in order to enhance its availability,
DQGWRLQFUHDVHFRQ¿GHQFHLQLWVLQWHJULW\
• promote the use of PETs;
• design and adapt the organisation’s e-busi
-
ness services in order to ensure that they
work with PETs and do not work against

them;
• support the distribution of PETs;
• actively distribute PETs to employees and/or
customers.
%HQH¿WV
Incorporating PETs into an organisation’s pri-
vacy strategy provides tangible evidence of its
intentions. Such actions are likely to be rated
more highly than the mere assurances set out in
privacy policy statements, at least by some target
segments, and by representatives of and advocates
for consumers.
$UHDVLQZKLFKEHQH¿WVFDQEHVRXJKWLQFOXGH
the following:
• if the target-market includes segments
that are particularly sensitive to privacy
concerns, they can be attracted by the
organisation’s strong privacy orientation,
as evidenced by its commitment to PETs;
905
Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
• a similar impact may be achieved if the
target-market involves client segments that
value ethical behaviour and the provision
of choice (whether or not those individuals
are themselves privacy-sensitive);
• a strong privacy image may be compatible
with the organisation’s brand and reputation
and hence enhance its effectiveness and
value. This depends, of course, on some

means whereby the measures relating to
3(7VLQÀXHQFHFRUSRUDWHLPDJH
• marketing and/or brand-projection effects
may enable enhanced market-share, and
consequent increased transaction revenue
or reduced customer acquisition costs; or
it may encourage greater participation (e.g.
in voluntary statistical surveys by a govern-
ment service) or more honest information
provision (to corporations and government
agencies alike);
• greater adoption arising from a PET-related
initiative may result in enhanced service
delivery to clients.
Because PET-related projects signal the
organisation’s willingness to address negative
perceptions of its activities, and involve the
HQJDJHPHQWRIVWDNHKROGHUVEHQH¿WVPD\DULVH
from the mere act of conducting business case
analysis, even if the eventual decision is to not
proceed with the initiative.
&RVWVDQG2WKHU'LVEHQH¿WV
There are costs involved in such measures. It is
XQOLNHO\WKDWWKH¿QDQFLDOFRVWV ZRXOGEH KLJK
relative to the scale of any reasonably large
organisation’s budget. On the other hand, an initia-
tive of this kind inevitably involves considerable
executive and managerial effort, and adaptation of
business processes, and, perhaps more challeng-
ingly, adaptation of organisational culture.

To have the desired effect, the initiative needs
to be integrated into the organisation’s marketing
communications mechanisms, in order to convey
the message to the targeted market-segments.
Moreover, the preparation of a business case using
a method with necessarily broad scope is itself
potentially expensive.
Risks
0DQ\EHQH¿WVDQGGLVEHQH¿WVDUHLQHYLWDEOHRU
at least highly likely. But some further impacts
may or may not arise, depending on various en-
vironmental factors.
One potential is that a project of this nature,
and deep analysis of it, may be divisive among the
participants, because their perspectives may be
distinctly different. Another possibility is that the
intentions may be seen as inappropriate, perhaps
by the media, or by a regulator, or by a competitor
or industry association. A further concern is the
possibility of failure or non-adoption, which could
result in disappointment and loss of morale.
)DFWRUVWKDWHPERG\VLJQL¿FDQWULVNQHHGWR
be the subject of a management strategy.
The Net Effect
Each organisation, in its own context, needs to
HYDOXDWHWKHQHWHIIHFWRIWKHEHQH¿WVDQGGLVEHQ-
H¿WVPRGHUDWHGE\WKHULVNV7KHUHDUHPDQ\FLU-
cumstances in which project sponsors can extract
VXI¿FLHQW EHQH¿W IURP D 3(7UHODWHG LQLWLDWLYH
to make it well worth the effort, investment and

management of the risks. And even where the net
effect of an initiative is not attractive, the effort
invested in preparing a business case can pay
dividends, by pointing the project team towards
a variant in the approach that will overcome the
SULPDU\GLVEHQH¿WRUULVN
Even if the costs appear high, investment in
3(7VPD\ZHOOE HMXVWL ¿HGD VD VW UDWHJ LF PHDVXUH 
906
Business Cases for Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
rather than one that needs to be formally justi-
¿HGE\PHDQVRIGLVFRXQWHGFDVKÀRZV7KLVLV
because it is of the nature of infrastructure, or an
enabler. One strategic opportunity is differentia-
tion leading to competitive advantage, particularly
¿UVWPRYHU DGYDQWDJH²VXFK DV PDUNHWVKDUH
JDLQVWKURXJKWKHDWWUDFWLRQRIXVHUVGLVVDWLV¿HG
with other suppliers. Another is where a PET
initiative has the capacity to unblock adoption
processes, such that e-business initiatives that
ZRXOGRWKHUZLVHVWDOOFDQLQVWHDGÀRXULVK
CONCLUSION
Organisations need to appreciate that the achieve-
ment of their objectives may be seriously hindered
by distrust of e-business and of the organisations
that provide e-business services. Organisations
need to adopt a positive approach to the privacy
of the parties that they deal with, and to conceive,
articulate and implement a privacy strategy.
For some corporations and government agen-

cies, simple approaches based on privacy impact
assessment and privacy-sensitive business prac-
WLFHVPD\VXI¿FH)RURWKHUVKRZHYHUDYRLGLQJ
distrust and instead inculcating trust demands
more substantial initiatives. Initiatives in relation
to PETs can make important contributions towards
their overall privacy strategies.
As with any other project, a business case is
needed. Care is necessary in selecting the appro-
priate approach to adopt, because the perspectives
RIRWKHUNH\VWDNHKROGHUVKDYHWREHUHÀHFWHG
particularly the parties whose participation is cru-
ci al. T his ch apte r has prov ided an ove r view of the
rationale and the process involved, together with
LQGLFDWRUVRIEHQH¿WVGLVEHQH¿WVDQGULVNV
Using the guidance in this chapter, an organi-
sation can evaluate the potentials that PETs offer
to staff, or to key customer segments, and build
the business case.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This chapter was stimulated by an invitation
from Mike Gurski, Director of the Privacy Cen-
tre of Excellence of Bell Information & Com-
munications Technology Solutions in Toronto,
and Caspar Bowden, Chief Privacy Advisor
EMEA, Microsoft, of London and Toulouse. A
preliminary version was presented at the Execu-
tive Session of PETS 2005—5th Workshop on
Privacy-Enhancing Technologies, June 2, 2005,
Cavtat, Croatia.

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Chapter 3.16
Games-Based E-Learning:

Implications and Challenges for
Higher Education and Training
Thomas Connolly
University of Paisley, UK
0DUN6WDQV¿HOG
University of Paisley, UK
ABSTRACT
This chapter introduces games-based e-learning
as a means of providing enriching and stimulating
learning experiences within higher education and
training. It highlights how e-learning has evolved
and the developments that have opened the way for
games-based e-learning, giving examples of spe-
FL¿FDSSOLFDWLRQV7KHDXWKRUVKRSHWKDWWKURXJK
gaining a better understanding of the implications,
challenges and barriers to games-based e-learn-
ing, educators, practitioners and developers will
be able to make better use of and gain substantial
EHQH¿WIURPWKHVHH[FLWLQJOHDUQLQJWHFKQRORJLHV
Finally, the chapter will identify what the authors
b e l i e ve t o b e f u t u r e t r e n d s i n r e l a t i o n t o e - l e a r n i n g
and games-based e-learning.
INTRODUCTION
Over the last decade, e-learning has developed to
a point where it now provides a credible alterna-
tive to more traditional forms of education and
training, as well as providing new opportunities
to both educators and learners. In recent years
a new form of learning has been developing,
namely games-based e-learning, which in many

ways builds on the successes of e-learning, whilst
providing a more stimulating and relevant learning
environment for younger people who have been
brought up in an environment of powerful home
computers, graphic-rich multiplayer Internet
gaming and mobile phones with ever increas-
ing functionality. This is in contrast to many of
today’s educators and instructors whose learning
experiences were largely underpinned by the use
911
Games-Based E-Learning
of more passive technologies (Prensky, 2001).
This chapter explores the concepts of e-learning
and games-based e-learning and examines their
contribution to higher education and training.
Games-based e-learning is an exciting phenom-
enon that draws upon many different areas that
include learning theory, interactive technologies,
FRPSXWHUJDPHVWKHRU\DQGGHVLJQDQGVSHFL¿F
subject matter expertise.
BACKGROUND
The term e-learningKDV EHHQ GH¿QHGDV ³the
use of digital technologies and media to deliver,
support and enhance teaching, learning, assess-
ment and evaluation” (LTSN, 2003, p. 6). In this
FKDSWHUZHGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQ³RQOLQHOHDUQLQJ´
DQG³HOHDUQLQJ´:HXVHWKHWHUPonline learning
to represent any class that offers its entire cur-
riculum via the Internet, thereby allowing learners
to participate regardless of geographic location

(place-independent) and theoretically 24 hours a
day (time-independent). This is in contrast to the
traditional classroom instruction, which is time
and place bound, face-to-face (FtF), typically
conducted in an educational setting and consist-
ing primarily of a lecture/note-taking model, and
blended learning, which is a combination of online
learning and traditional classroom instruction. We
use e-learning as a generic term to encompass both
(fully) online learning and blended learning. The
instructional media elements employed within
WKHFRQWH[WRIWKLVGH¿QLWLRQRIHOHDUQLQJFRXOG
consist of text, video, audio, graphics, animation
or any combination thereof. A central compo-
nent of most e-learning courses is some form of
two-way interaction between learners and their
instructor and between the learners themselves.
Synchronous communication tools, such as real-
time chat, and asynchronous tools, such as e-mail
and discussion boards, are common.
Over the past decade, e-learning has evolved
and developed at a rapid pace so much so that it
is a commonly accepted and increasingly popular
alternative to traditional FtF education (Gunawar-
dena & McIsaac, 2004; Connolly, MacArthur,
6WDQV¿HOG0F/HOODQLQSUHVV6RPHIDFXOW\
members are strong proponents of e-learning and
believe online courses can provide educational
opportunities to learners who would otherwise
have to do without. They also believe that the

quality of these courses can be comparable to
traditional place-bound courses (Dutton, Dutton,
& Perry, 2002).
$FFRUGLQJWR&RQQROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOG
there have been six generations of distance learn-
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e-learning is based on mainly passive use of the
Internet (circa 1994-99), primarily consisting of
conversion of course material to an online format,
EDVLF PHQWRULQJ XVLQJ HPDLO DQG ORZ¿GHOLW\
streamed audio/video. However, the educational
philosophy still belongs to the pre-Internet era. The
use of more advanced technologies consisting of
high-bandwidth access, rich streaming media and
virtual learning environments that provide access
to course material, communication facilities and
student services represents the second generation
of e-learning (circa 2000-03). Asynchronous
communications support a constructivist form of
learning and allow learners to communicate in
ZULWLQJ7KLVDSSURDFKHQFRXUDJHVPRUHUHÀHFWLRQ
and disciplined and rigorous thinking, which helps
learners to make connections among ideas and to
construct internal, coherent knowledge structures
(Garrison, 1997). The most recent developments
in e-learning (since 2003) are more collaborative
learning environments based much more on the
FRQVWUXFWLYLVWHSLVWHPRORJ\SURPRWLQJUHÀHFWLYH
practice through tools like e-portfolios, blogs,

wikis, using games-based e-learning and highly
interactive online simulations. We are also now
starting to see the development of mobile learn-
ing (m-learning) through devices like personal
digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones and
smartphones. M-learning is still at an early stage,
912
Games-Based E-Learning
but as these devices become more functional, we
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this area.
I n t e r m s o f i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n
and training, the research literature cites many
advantages of an e-learning environment, particu-
larly the convenience and ÀH[LELOLW\RIIHUHGE\
WKHDV\QFKURQRXV³DQ\WLPHDQ\ZKHUHDQ\SDFH´
education (McDonald, 2002). The asynchronous
nature of the medium also allows learners time for
UHVHDUFKLQWHUQDOUHÀHFWLRQDQG³FROOHFWLYHWKLQN-
ing” (Garrison, 1997). Moreover, the text-based
nature of e-learning normally requires written
communication from the learner, which along
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such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, and
encourage clearer and more precise thinking
(Jonassen, 1996). McComb (1993) considers
WKDWHOHDUQLQJDOVRSURYLGHVHI¿FLHQWDFFHVVWR
information, which means that new resources
and updates/corrections to course material can
be posted relatively quickly, and at the same

time learners have access to the wealth of related
information available on the Internet. In addition,
e-learning courses also have the capability to pres-
ent multiple representations of a concept, which
allows learners to store and retrieve information
more effectively (Kozma, 1987). Most e-learning
systems also provide an automatic paper trail of
all discussions that instructors and learners can
VXEVHTXHQWO\HODERUDWHRUUHÀHFWRQ
Increased social distance provides a number
of distinct advantages to online conferences
(synchronous or asynchronous). In written com-
munications, anonymity of characteristics such as
gender, race, age, or social status can be preserved,
which can reduce the feeling of discrimination,
and provide equality of social interaction among
participants. In turn, this can permit the expres-
sion of emotion and promote discussion that
normally would be inhibited. However, there is
some evidence that the social equality factor may
not extend to participants who are poor writers
but who must communicate primarily in a text-
based format (Gunawardena, 1993).
DEVELOPMENTS TOWARD
GAMES-BASED E-LEARNING
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VLJQL¿FDQWDPRXQWRIZRUNFDUULHGRXWLQWRWKH
use of computer games-based technologies and
concepts to enhance teaching and learning, both
for higher education and training purposes. Con-

QROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOGGH¿QHJDPHVEDVHG
H  OHDU Q L Q J D V  ³ W K H X V H RI D F R PSX W H U J D P H V  E D V H G
approach to deliver, support, and enhance teach-
ing, learning, assessment, and evaluation” and can
be differentiated from the more common term
games-based learning, which tends to cover both
computer and noncomputer games, such as card
and board games. This is a research area that may
be conceptualized as the intersection of learning
theory, computer games theory and design, user
interfaces, and subject matter expertise. In this
conceptualization, learning theory serves as the
foundation to ensure that technology does not
become the dominant factor. In this section, we
discuss some of the pedagogic underpinnings for
games-based e-learning. The interested reader is
UHIHUUHGWR&RQQROO\DQG6WDQV¿HOGIRUD
fuller discussion of the concepts of games-based
e-learning.
Motivation, Engagement, and
Challenge
Motivation is a key concept in many theories of
learning. Katzeff (2000) stresses that motivation
is a critical factor for instructional design and that
for learning to occur the learner must be motivated
to learn. Malone and Lepper (1987) present a theo-
retical framework of intrinsic motivation (doing
something because it is inherently interesting or
enjoyable) in the design of educational computer
913

Games-Based E-Learning
games. They suggest that intrinsic motivation is
created by four individual factors—challenge,
fantasy, curiosity and control—and three inter-
personal factors—cooperation, competition and
recognition. Computer games induce conditions
within players that encourage them to continue
involvement with the game. Such conditions
include satisfaction, desire, anger, absorption,
interest, excitement, enjoyment, pride in achieve-
ment and the (dis)approbation of peers and others.
It is in provoking and harnessing some of these
emotions and their consequences that computer
JDPHVPLJKWEHQH¿WHGXFDWLRQ%ULWLVK (GXFD-
tional Communications and Technology Agency
(Becta), 2001). This is borne out by a study cited in
Garris, Ahlers, and Driskell (2002), which found
that incorporating game features into instruction
increased motivation and consequently produced
greater attention and retention. An empirical study
by Chen, Shen, Ou, and Liu (1998) demonstrated
the positive effects of computer games on motiva-
tion and learning.
Prensky (2001) argues that learning today is
unengaging compared to all the alternatives like
television, computer games and even work. The
current younger generation going through higher
education, which Prensky terms digital natives,
has grown up in a technologically sophisticated
environment; an environment populated by

home computers, the Internet, graphic-rich mov-
ies, multi-player Internet gaming, PlayStations,
Xboxes, Game Boys, DVD players, mobile phones,
interactive television, PDAs and iPods, which has
led to a change in their experiences, attitudes. and
expectations. Contrast this with the predigital gen-
eration (today’s instructors) who grew up largely
with the passive technologies of books, television
DQGUDGLRDQGZKRZHUH³HGXFDWHGLQWKHVW\OHV
of the past” (Prensky, 2001). Table 1 highlights
features that contribute to motivation.
Gee (2003) believes that challenge is crucial to
sustain engagement but that this can be achieved
by building into interactivity the same learning
principles used in effective classrooms, namely:
What indicates motivation?
Independent work
Self-directed problem posing
Persistence
Pleasure in learning
What generates motivation?
Active participation
Intrinsic and prompt feedback
Challenging but achievable goals
Mix of uncertainty and open-endedness
What can motivation usefully support?
Collaborative interaction
Peer scaffolding of learning
Creative competition or cooperation
Equal opportunities

What does sustained motivation rely on?
A version of reality
Relevance to the user
Recognizable and desirable roles for players
What are problems with motivation?
Motivation may lead to obsession
Motivation may cause transfer of fantasy into reality
Motivation may induce egotism
Table 1. Features that contribute to motivation (Source: Becta, 2001)