Electronic Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (4-Volumes) P158 potx

1504
The Human Face of E-Business
by 2004 these had increased to over £18 billion
(Wallis, 2006). The growth in Internet sales be-
tween 2003 and 2004 was over 67%; this clearly
shows brisk expansion in the value of Internet
VDOHV:DOOLV,QWKH$VLD3DFL¿FUHJLRQ
sales also grew rapidly, from about $200 billion
in 2003 to about $300 billion by 2004 (United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development
[UNCTAD], 2003). In contrast, the situation in the
$UDEZRUOGLVGLIIHUHQWVLQFHWKHHVWLPDWHG¿JXUH
for B2C in Africa and the Middle East cannot be
compared with those in the US, the EU, or China
(UNCTAD, 2004).
Trust in online shopping still represents a
VLJQL¿FDQWEDUULHUIRU,QWHUQHWXVHUVDQGLVFULS-
pling the e-commerce environment (Zhang &
Zhang, 2005). Trust is a critical component for
any business transaction, and is particularly es-
sential in the e-commerce environment because
of the paucity of rules and customs in regulating
e-commerce and due to the fact that, typically,
online services and products are not immediately
YH U L ¿ D E O H  0 R U H RYH UR Q O L Q H W U D Q V D F W LR Q V D U H P R U H 
impersonal, anonymous, and automated and lack
the assurance provided in traditional settings
through formal proceedings and receipts. B2C
online vendors are particularly challenged when
trying to build and attain consumer trust. Indeed,
in contrast to face-to-face commerce and to other

applications of trust, which encompass a wide
range of emotions involving various types of so-
cial interaction with humans, there are typically
no interpersonal interactions in e-commerce,
neither direct nor implied. Such interactions, or
even cues relating to them, are notably missing
from e-commerce Web sites. Online shopping
may be viewed as lacking human warmth and
sociability. The social aspect of shopping has been
shown to be a major contributor towards positive
emotions (Jones, 1999) that have been linked to
several important outcomes, such as increased
unplanned purchasing, increased spending, and
increased time spent in the store (Jones, 1999).
2QOLQHYHQGRUVIDFHDVLJQL¿FDQWFKDOOHQJHLQ
making their Web sites socially rich (Kumar &
Benbasat, 2002).
The aspect of trust has been examined over
many years, however, most of the research on
consumer trust focuses on consumers in Eng-
lish-speaking countries and newly industrialized
countries. Trust in e-commerce research has
been conducted almost exclusively in the US or
Western Europe. Considering the cultural, eco-
nomic, social, and political differences between
the developed and less developed countries,
concerns have been raised in terms of whether
research based in the US or Western Europe can
be generalized to other countries (Bagozzi, Wong,
Abe, & Bergami, 2000). The global nature of the

Internet raises questions about the effects of trust
across cultures as well. Although trust may be
formed in a variety of ways, it depends on the
cultural factors (e.g., societal norms, values, etc.)
that guide people’s behaviors and beliefs. Despite
the differences national culture can cause in e-
commerce behavior (Kacen & Lee, 2002), and
despite e-commerce becoming global, research
on trust in e-commerce has to emphasize the
possible effects of national culture. For that, this
study attempts to carry out a pilot case investiga-
tion of our research objectives in Saudi Arabia;
a developing country with the highest growth
in Internet users in the Middle East and Africa
(www.mcit.gov.sa).
Research Objectives and
Organization of the Article
This study researched the effect of adding media
cues (video clips, photographs) of a presumed
sales person’s face to the home page of an e-com-
merce vendor, and considered the effect of social
presence cues, also known as interpersonal cues,
that are implicit in the media cue on users’ initial
trust in the vendor (Research Objective 1). The
majority of studies of online customer trust focus
on general trust as it develops between customers
and online vendors over time and after repeated
1505
The Human Face of E-Business
experiences. While we recognize the importance

of the evolving nature of trust, our study focuses
on initial trust beliefs that develop after a customer
¿UVWLQWHUDFWVZLWKWKHFRPSDQ\¶V:HEVLWH7KH
difference between the two concepts may be subtle
EXWDVZHGLVFXVVODWHULVVLJQL¿FDQWSDUWLFXODUO\
in the online environment. The study further
investigated the effect of culture, as represented
by a facial photograph of a Western and Saudi
man added to the home page of an e-commerce
vendor, on users’ trust in that vendor (Research
Objective 2). This experiment was concerned
with investigating trust as a dependent variable
and other variables as independent variables, as
well as how the depth of a user’s exploration of a
VLWHH[SORUDWLRQGHSWKLQÀXHQFHVWKHHIIHFWRID
media cue on user trust (Research Objective 3).
On a methodological level, the experiment aimed
to overcome part of the limitations of convention-
DOO\XVHGWUXVWTXHVWLRQQDLUHVIUHHIURP¿QDQFLDO
risk by introducing trust questionnaires that
ZHUHHOLFLWHGXQGHUFRQGLWLRQVRI¿QDQFLDOULVN
(Research Objective 4). This article is organized
as follows: the second section examines previ-
ous work related to e-commerce and trust and
reviews the research hypotheses. The third section
outlines the methodology of the study, while the
data analysis is presented in the fourth section.
7KHUHVXOWVDUHGLVFXVVHGLQWKH¿IWKVHFWLRQDQG
LQWKH¿QDOVHFWLRQFRQFOXVLRQVDUHGUDZQ
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND

HYPOTHESES
Trust
7UXVWKDVZLGHO\FRQÀLFWLQJFRQFHSWXDOGH¿QL-
tions; the literature on trust in general, and on
trust in e-commerce in particular, is in a state of
confusion (McKnight & Chervany, 2001). The
confusion in trust terminology is expressed in
terms of two kinds of problems. First, similar
concepts are given different names and second,
the same terms are used for different concepts
(Krauter, Kaluscha, & Fladnitzer, 2006). There
LVQRXQLYHUVDOO\DFFHSWHGVFKRODUO\GH¿QLWLRQ
of trust (Rousseau, Sitkin, Butt, & Camerer,
1998).
6XPPDUL]LQJ WKH GLIIHUHQW GH¿QLWLRQV RI
trust across various research disciplines, it can
EH FRQFOXGHG WKDW DOO WUXVW GH¿QLWLRQV DGGUHVV
one or more of the following perspectives: (1)
context characteristics, (2) trustor properties, and
(3) characteristics of the trusted object (Krauter
HWDO0DQ\GH¿QLWLRQVDOVRDGGUHVVWKH
interaction or relationships between two or all
three of these perspectives. The key concepts of
PRVWRIWKHWUXVWGH¿QLWLRQVDUHULVN0D\HU'DYLV
& Schoorman, 1995), vulnerability (Mayer et al.,
H[SHFWDWLRQ%DLHUDQGFRQ¿GHQFH
(Lewicki & Bunker, 1995). These factors are
JDWKHUHGE\WKHIROORZLQJWUXVWGH¿QLWLRQZKLFK
UHSUHVHQWWKHPRVWFRPPRQGH¿QLWLRQRIRQOLQH
trust (Mayer et al., 1995):

Trust is the willingness to depend upon another
party and be vulnerable to the actions of this other
party based on the assumption that the trusted
party will deliver without taking advantage of
the situation. (p. 711)
$VLWLVYHU\DEVWUDFWWKLVGH¿QLWLRQFDQEHVHHQ
as the most common in the human computer inter-
action (HCI) trust research (Corritore, Kracher, &
:LHGHQEHFN,WGH¿QHVWUXVWDVDQLQWHUQDO
state or attitude which entails cognitive and affec-
tive aspects (Corritore et al., 2003). Trust, as an
internal state, is different from trusting action (e.g.,
buying online, entering credit card details, relying
on advice) or cooperation (e.g., in a team setting),
which are observable behaviors (Corritore et al.,
2003). Also trust is not the same as trustworthi-
ness; trust is the act of a trustor while perceived
trustworthiness is a characteristic of someone or
something that is the object of trust (Corritore et
al., 2003; Serva, Benamati, & Fuller, 2005). In the
HFRPPHUFHFRQWH[WWUXVWKDVEHHQGH¿QHGUDWKHU
QDUURZO\HJ%KDWWDFKHUMHHGH¿QHGWUXVW
as trusting beliefs) or more broadly (e.g., McK-
1506
The Human Face of E-Business
QLJK&KRXGKXU\.DFPDUZKRGH¿QHG
trust as trusting beliefs and trusting intentions).
Trusting beliefs (i.e., perceptions of Web vendor
attributes), and trusting intentions (i.e., intentions
to engage in trust-related behaviors with a Web

vendor) are based on the theory of reasoned ac-
tion (TRA) which was introduced by Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980) to analyze the psychological pro-
FHVVHVWKDWUHÀHFWREVHUYHGUHODWLRQVKLSVDPRQJ
beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. The
theory asserts that intention to perform behavior
is determined by the individual’s attitude toward
the behavior, and a person’s attitude is affected
by his/her beliefs. TRA has been widely accepted
and applied to a broad range of disciplines and
contexts. Existing empirical research has revealed
WKDWWUXVWLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\UHODWHGWRDWWLWXGHDQG
DWWLWXGH SRVLWLYHO\ VLJQL¿HV SHRSOH¶V SXUFKDVH
intentions (Chow & Holden, 1997; Macintosh
& Lockshin, 1997). TRA is also applied as the
theoretical base in recent studies on trust forma-
tion (McKnight & Chervany, 2001; McKnight,
Cummings, & Chervany, 1998), especially in the
context of e-commerce (Jarvenpaa, Tractinsky, &
Vitale, 2000). Since trust can be seen as a belief,
F R Q ¿ G H Q F H  V H Q W L P H QW  R U H [ S H F W D W LR Q D E R X W D Q H[-
change partner’s intention and/or likely behavior,
we believe that it is posited to be directly related
to the attitudes toward purchasing from a vendor
and indirectly related to consumers’ willingness
to buy through purchasing attitudes. This is how
ZHGH¿QHWUXVWLQWKLVDUWLFOHWKLVLVFRQVLVWHQW
ZLWKKRZWUXVWKDVEHHQSUHYLRXVO\GH¿QHGLQWKH
literature (Gefen, 2002).
Trustors and trustees, that is, objects of trust,

can be individual people, groups, organizations,
or even societies. This article focuses on the nar-
row-scale study of trust, where the target is an
individual e-business. At this level, the focus is
on the process of identifying a trustee’s charac-
teristics or his trustworthiness.
The Varying Dimensionality
of Trust
Although there is no complete agreement on
the meaning of trust, it should be noted that the
GLPHQVLRQVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHLWDUHFRQWH[WVSHFL¿F
(Lewis & Weigert, 1985). As mentioned previ-
ously, the literature does reveal that the concept
of trust tends to coalesce around a few key recur-
ring concepts. There must exist, for the trusting
party, uncertainty about a potential or existing
relationship that leads to a certain perception of
risk or vulnerability. This perception of risk is
generally based upon the beliefs regarding spe-
FL¿FIDFWRUVRIWKHWUXVWHH<HWUHFHQWUHVHDUFK
KDVSULPDULO\IRFXVHGRQWKUHHVSHFL¿FIDFWRUV
which may parsimoniously capture the concept
or the dimensions of trustworthiness—that is,
ability, benevolence, and integrity (Jarvenpaa et
al., 2000). Ability is the perceived skills, compe-
tencies, and characteristics that enable a party to
K DYH L Q ÀX H Q F H Z L W K L Q D V S H F L ¿ F G R P D L Q  0 D \H U H W 
al., 1995). Benevolence is the trustor’s belief that
the trustee wants to do good toward the trustor.
Integrity is the belief that the trustee adheres to a

VHWRISULQFLSOHVWKDWWKHWUXVWRU¿QGVDFFHSWDEOH
(Mayer et al., 1995). Perceptions of these three
characteristics can lead to a willingness of the
trusting party to depend or rely upon the trustee
LQ H[SHFWDWLRQ RI D FHUWDLQ EHQH¿FLDO RXWFRPH
or that the trustee will not act opportunistically.
7KHVH WKUHH VSHFL¿F IDFWRUV FDQ RIWHQ QRW EH
observed directly, but need to be inferred from
signals in the Web site interface. In HCI trust
research, signals given in the interface of a system
that can form the basis of perceived trustworthi-
ness are referred to as surface cues (Fogg, 2002).
Certain literatures construct trust from different
viewpoints and propose two main components or
factors of trust: cognitive and affective or emo-
t i o n a l (e.g., Sh n e i d e r m a n , 2 0 0 0). Fe n g, L a z a r, a n d
Preece (2004) argue that the affective component
1507
The Human Face of E-Business
of trust has been to some extent ignored in HCI
trust research, in particular in the domain of e-
commerce, where research is largely focused on
factors that contribute to cognitive trust, such as
security, error absence, and trust seals. For retail
transactions, cognitive factors can increase the
FRQ ¿GHQFHWKDWDWUDQVDFW LRQZLOOEHVXFFHVVIXOO\
completed. Affective factors can increase the
feelings of attraction and trust.
The distinction between cognitive and emo-
tional trust has received some support in an

empirical study on long-term work relationships
(McAllister, 1995), and strong support in a face-
to-face study that manipulated emotional trust
(Johnson-George & Swap, 1982). However, only
a few studies have examined affective-oriented
factors in an e-commerce (B2C) environment.
This oversight of the affective element of trust
GRHVQRWUHÀHFWWKHLQFUHDVLQJFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKDW
is given to affective processes in multiple disci-
plines (e.g., marketing, psychology, sociology)
(Riegelsberger, Sasse, & McCarthy, 2005). For
example, marketing and advertising research are
WKH¿HOGVWKDWKDYHWKHJUHDWHVWSRZHULQLQYHV-
tigating affective elements in decision-making
processes. In these disciplines it is well-known
that a consumer’s purchase decision depends on
rational process and on positive affective reactions
(Kotler, 2002).
However, as mentioned in the research ob-
jectives, this study concentrates on initial trust.
7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIWUXVWSUHYLRXVO\GLVFXVVHGDOVR
applies to initial trust. The difference lies in the
temporal context of the development of trust. In
this case, initial trust is the willingness to rely
RQDWKLUGSDUW\DIWHUWKH¿UVWLQWHUDFWLRQZLWK
that party. It is recognized that the development
of trust is an ongoing, dynamic process that is
LQÀXHQFHGE\LQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQWZRSDUWLHV
However, we believe that initial trust beliefs can
also be formed without any prior experience or

interaction between the two parties. The initial
trust beliefs may change with time and with re-
peated interactions but they may also determine
the extent to which such future interactions will
take place (McKnight, Choudhury, & Kacmar,
2002).
In the context of e-commerce, initial trust is
very important since Web-based companies must
rely on their Web sites to represent them and to
show their new customers that they are reliable
and trustworthy. Customers visiting a Web site
IRUWKH¿UVWWLPHPD\UHO\KHDYLO\RQ:HEVLWH
cues to form their initial trust beliefs, but they
still lack the important information that develops
through interaction over time (McKnight et al.,
2002). Another important reason for establishing
FXVWRPHUWUXVWWKURXJKWKH¿UVW:HEVLWHYLVLWLV
the possibility of low switching costs for new cus-
tomers compared with switching costs for expert
customers (Reichheld & Schefter, 2000). Since
the Web contains vast numbers of alternatives,
either in vendors or in products, it has become
very easy for customers to switch to a different
RQOLQHVWRUH DI WHUWKHLU¿UVWYLVLW6RLWKDVEHFRPH
an essential process for online vendors to try to
establish and retain a trusting relationship with
¿UVWWLPHFXVWRPHUV7KHUHIRUHZHEHOLHYHWKDWD
thorough examination of the factors that promote
initial trust in new customers of online vendors
is critical.

Social Presence and Online Trust
Applying trust-inducing features to the Web sites
of online merchants is the most effective technique
for enhancing online trust. Many researchers in
HCI have begun to study trust in an online con-
text. Some researchers are focusing on the cues
that may affect trust or convey trustworthiness
to users of Web sites. In a sense, a Web site with
trust-inducing features functions as a skillful
salesperson for the company (e.g., Katsikas, Lo-
pez, & Pernul, 2005).
1508
The Human Face of E-Business
The trust phenomenon represents an ongo-
ing interpersonal interaction with another party,
whether a person or organization, over an extended
period of time. Indeed, trust is typically built
gradually through extensive ongoing interactions
that enable individuals to create reliable expecta-
tions of what the other party may do (Luhmann,
1979). This social context is a key characteristic
of trust and trust-building behaviors, since trust,
in general, is built through constructive interac-
tions with other people (Luhmann, 1979). So, the
perception of a high degree of social presence,
implying direct or indirect human contact in the
relationship should, arguably, contribute to the
building of trust. Extending this logic implies
that another way in which trust in an e-commerce
Web site may be built is through embedding the

Web site interface with a high social presence,
such as the perception that there is a medium of
communication that represents personal, sociable,
and sensitive human contact (Gefen & Straub,
2004).
6RFLDOSUHVHQFHKDVEHHQGH¿QHGDVWKHH[WHQW
to which a medium allows users to experience
others as being psychologically present (Fulk,
Schmitz, & Power, 1987). Social presence theory
by Short, Williams, and Christie (1976) describes
how the social context affects medium use; they see
social presence as a quality inherent in a commu-
nication medium. Some researchers characterize
the social presence of a medium as its capacity
to transmit information about facial expressions,
posture, dress, and non-verbal cues (Short et al.,
1976). Others focus on the psychological con-
nection, where social presence is concerned with
warmth and whether it conveys a feeling of hu-
man contact or sociability (Yoo & Alavi, 2001).
While others still, focus on its close relationship
to information richness theory (Straub, 1994),
which concentrates on the interactivity of the
media. Related to media information richness
theory (Straub, 1994), social presence theory
considers the extent to which a medium enables
a communicator to experience communication
partners as being psychologically present (Short et
al., 1976). High social presence is typically found
in face-to-face communication. However, medium

richness can vary depending on circumstances
(Zmud, Lind, & Young, 1990).
$VLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQRQOLQHDQG
off-line shopping environments is that the latter
involve a wide range of social interactions with
humans through multiple sensory channels. On-
line shopping, on the other hand, primarily tends
towards reducing the users’ affective or emotional
factors through functional and performance based
Web site design. As such, online shopping may
be viewed as lacking human sociability, since it is
more impersonal and automated than traditional
RIÀLQHFRPPHUFH6RFLDOUHVSRQVHVWRFRPSXWHU
technology (SRCT) research paradigm proposes
that individual interactions with computers and
other communication technologies are fundamen-
tally social and natural, and people interact with
computers and mediated stimuli using the same
social attitudes and behaviors that they apply to
other people. The computers are social actors
(CASA) paradigm (Nass, , Moon, & Carney,
 LQLWLDWHG WKLV ¿HOG RI UHVHDUFK DQG XVHV
theories and experiments derived from psychol-
ogy, sociology, and communication to develop
and validate theories. Granted, online shopping
Web sites typically involve no actual interaction
with other people, however, Web site interface
features have been suggested to help impact the
perception of social presence cues, also known as
interpersonal cues (discussed in more detail in the

next section), that can be embedded in different
ways. Higher perceived social presence cues in a
Web site may increase online trust through their
effect on increased electronic communication
since communication is a necessary element of
constructive interaction (Gefen & Straub, 2004).
Trust may increase when the trusted party shows
behavior or other indicators in accordance with
one’s expectations; the perception that the vendor
is embodying a high degree of social presence cues
in the Web site should increase consumer trust
1509
The Human Face of E-Business
to the degree that such indications are expected
(Luhmann, 1979).
Social presence cues can convey a sense of
personal, sociable, and sensitive human contact,
so too should multimedia Web sites. Indeed,
recently many online shopping Web sites have
used interface features and embedded social pres-
ence cues. Advertising research has long relied
on imagery of friendly faces to build a positive
attitude towards products.
Social Presence Cues
(Interpersonal Cues)
Social presence cues, also known as interpersonal
cues, are the signals that make a person aware of
the presence of other people (Short et al., 1976).
They are non-verbal and para-verbal communica-
tion methods and suggest participant appearance

each time a person interacts with another. It may
be intentional or unintentional and it is part of
the rapid stream of communication that passes
between two interacting individuals. Although
WKHUHDUHDQXPEHURIGH¿QLWLRQVRIVRFLDOSUHV-
ence cues (interpersonal cues), in the broadest
sense it is communication that transcends the
bare elements of the written or spoken word. The
interpretation of this communication has been
shown to have a central effect on participants’
perceptions of the event and can give information
about individuals’ backgrounds, motivations, and
emotional attitudes. They augment spoken mes-
sages by helping people express their feelings or
thoughts through the use of their bodies, their
facial expressions, and their tone of voice and so
on (Mehrabian & Epstein, 1972). Psychological
studies have concluded that more than 65% of
the information exchanged during a face-to-
face interaction is expressed through non-verbal
means. Fromkin & Rodman (1983) suggest that
up to 90% of the communicative process takes
place non-verbally. The characteristics of the
individuals involved and their response to coding
and decoding signals govern the role of social
SUHVHQFHFXHVLQDQ\H[FKDQJH7KUHHVSHFL¿F
YDULDEOHVFDQEHLGHQWL¿HGDVLPSDFWLQJRQWKH
nature of non-verbal communication during the
exchange; gender, culture, and personal traits.
Social presence cues (interpersonal cues) are

of relevance in the debate on trust as they can
be interpreted as signals for trustworthiness.
A trustor can form an impression of perceived
trustworthiness of a trustee from the interpersonal
cues he/she perceives in a face-to-face situation;
it works as inferences (Steinbruck, Schaumburg,
Kruger, & Duda, 2002). Interpersonal cues lead
to an instant impression formation and thus have
an immediate impact on affective trust. The dif-
ferent types of cues differ in their reliability for
trust assessments, and in how they are affected
by transmission over media (Riegelsberger et
al., 2005).
7KHUH DUH PDQ\ FODVVL¿FDWLRQV RI LQWHUSHU-
sonal cues (Hinton, 1993); the most common
types are:
1.
Paralanguage: The vocal cues that accom-
pany spoken language
2.
Kinesics: Body movements
3. O
cculesics: Eye behavior
4.
Appearance/artifacts
5.
Proxemics: The non-verbal study of space
and distance
6.
Haptics: The non-verbal communication

study of touch
7.
Olfactics: The non-verbal communication
study of smell
8.
Chronomics: The non-verbal communica-
tion study of time
9.
Facial expressions
Online Trust and Media Cue
Existing technologies allow for various represen-
tations of interpersonal cues that are embodied in
different kinds of media cues (e.g., photo, audio,
video, embodied agent) to be integrated into one
platform. There are many theoretical concepts
1510
The Human Face of E-Business
that classify and explain such media effects. The
most common are social presence (Short et al.,
1976), media richness (Straub, 1994), and SRCT
(Nass, Moon, Fogg, Reeves, & Dryer, 1996) as
discussed in the previous section.
The reduction in the number of interpersonal
cues when interacting online is seen as one of the
reasons for the lack of trust online (Shneiderman,
2000). This assumption is well supported by many
studies (e.g., Hassanein & Head, 2004). These
studies found that richer representations result
in higher awareness, preference, and interper-
sonal focus. The most commonly used example

of visual interpersonal cues is the smile—this
KDV EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG DV SRZHUIXO LQ VWLPXODWLQJ
immediate affective responses, and can form a
basis for affective trust.
Thus, Web site interface elements such as
photographs, video clips, or synthetic voices can
create some level of social presence that may
enhance the affective trust compared to Web site
interfaces lacking such elements, and can therefore
be taken as an indication of the trustworthiness
of the trustee.
There is much research on trust in e-commerce
vendors, while in contrast there are very few that
KDYHVSHFL¿FDOO\WHVWHGWKHHIIHFWRILQWHUSHUVRQDO
cues on trust (Al-Diri, Hobbs, & Qahwaji, 2006).
Some of the existing studies focused on the ef-
fect of synthetic interpersonal cues in avatars
(embodied agents); others investigated the effect
of displaying facial photos of humans on e-com-
merce sites. All of these studies tested users’ trust
either in the form of quantitative questionnaires
or with qualitative interviews, using two mock-
ups of an e-commerce Web site, one with and
one without a photo or avatar (e.g., Bickmore &
Picard, 2005).
Video
In general, video is considered to be a rich media
cue and thus is considered to afford high social
presence cues as it transmits many visual and
audio cues.

In a study by Swerts, Krahmer, Barkhuysen,
and Van de Laar (2003), on the effect of social
presence cues on the detection of speaker uncer-
tainty, they found the best discriminative ability
for video with audio, compared to video only
and audio only.
Brosig, Ockenfels, and Weimann (2002) found
that video with audio reached levels of cooperation
that were close to those reached in face-to-face
communication, even though they were reached
after a longer time than in face-to-face com-
munication.
Horn, Olson, and Karasik (2002) in a study
on lie detection in job interviews found a better
performance in discriminating lies from truthful
statements in high quality video than in audio
only.
The study also compared low resolution video
and low frame rate video. They found that low
resolution video, which suppresses detailed facial
cues gives a performance as high-quality video
and good performance in lie detection. Horn et
al. (2002) attribute this result to the reduction in
truth bias in the absence of recognizable facial
cues and the fact that the presence of facial cues
may lead to a trusting reaction.
A study by Van Mulken, Andre, and Müller
(1999) investigated trust in advice. This study
varied the representation of an advisor (video,
embodied agent, audio, and text only) and the

quality of the advice. Hence, the effect of media
representation could be compared to the effect
of advice quality. The study found a preference
for high quality advice in all representations, but
RQO\LQVLJQL¿FDQWLQGLFDWLRQRIDSRVLWLYHHIIHFW
for video on the behavioral measures.
Photos
Research on the use of personal photos in Web
sites are very few and contradictory, with some
1511
The Human Face of E-Business
VWXGLHV¿QGLQJVXFKLPDJHVWREHDSRVLWLYHFXH
(Fogg, 2002; Nielsen, 1996; Steinbruck et al.,
2002), while others found them to be neutral
(Riegelsberger, Sasse, & McCarthy, 2002). Urban,
Fareena, and Qualls (1999) found that screen-
sized facial photographs of shopping assistants
embedded into a shopping Web site interface led
to a wide range of reactions as some users liked
it, while others considered it unnecessary. In the
Fogg et al. (2001) study on the credibility of online
news articles, they found that photos of authors
increased credibility. Riegelsberger, Sasse, and
McCarthy (2003) found that virtual re-embedding
had a positive effect on user trust for medium ex-
perienced shoppers. Highly experienced Internet
users, as well as consumers with a high level of
GLVWUXVWWRZDUGVRQOLQHYHQGRUVEHQH¿WHGOLWWOH
from the provision of social cues in the interface
(Riegelsberger & Sasse, 2002). Steinbruck et al.

(2002), in an experimental study, investigated
whether adding a photo of an employee to the
home page of an online-banking site increased
user trust in the bank—they found a positive ef-
fect on trust. As a result of the foregoing it was
hypothesized that:
H-16XEMHFWVGLIIHUVLJQL¿FDQWO\RQWKHLUUDWLQJ
of trust belief and trust intention across vendor’s
Web sites.
H-2:
H-2-a7KH ¿UVW UDWLQJ RI D YHQGRU¶V :HE VLWHV
trustworthiness will result for those presenting
video clips.
H-2-b-The second rating of a vendor’s Web sites
trustworthiness will result for those presenting
photos
H-2-c-The third rating of a vendor’s Web sites
trustworthiness will result for those without
photos.
Web Site Design and Culture
Understanding how to build trust for diverse
consumers in electronic markets is imperative
(Grewal, Munger, Iyer, & Levy, 2003). Culture
has implications in Internet settings as well and is
FRQVLGHUHGWRLQÀXHQFHFRQVXPHUWUXVW-DUYHQSDD
& Tractinsky, 1999), Internet diffusion (Ferle, Ed-
wards, & Mizuno, 2002), Internet marketing (Tian
& Emery, 2002), Web site development (Kang &
Corbitt, 2001), and Web interface acceptance and
preferences. Despite an anticipated large number

of consumers from multiple cultures, few studies
have examined the Web preferences of users in
terms of design characteristics across cultures
(Chen & Dhillon, 2003). Cyr and Trevor-Smith
IRXQGVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWFKDUDFWHU-
istics in Web design for municipal Web sites
across cultures. Further, Simon (2001) examined
cultural differences related to Web site satisfac-
tion among the residents of Asia, Europe, Latin
and South America, and North America based
on Hofstede’s model and found different prefer-
ences for colors and navigation. Sun’s (2001)
exploratory study examining cultural markers
focused on language, pictures and graphics,
colors, and page layout and found culture to be
an important design consideration that increases
usability of multilingual Web pages. All of these
studies point to one general conclusion—Web
sites need to be adapted to the different cultures
of the targeted consumers. Singh, Xhao, and Hu,
FRQFOXGHG³7KHZHELVQRWDFXOWXUDOO\
neutral medium.” Studies like that of Hillier
 HPSKDVL]HG WKDW ³EXLOGLQJ WUXVW RQ WKH
web requires user interface characteristics ap-
propriate for culturally diverse audiences.” An
effective Web site design can engage and attract
online consumers’ trustworthiness (Fogg et al.,
2001), which is also considered central to trust
development (Egger, 2001).
1512

The Human Face of E-Business
Cultural Photo as a Symbol
Symbols are important elements denoting culture
(Marcus & Gould, 2000). One important form
of symbolism is multimedia relating to culture,
which few researchers have so far examined. Such
multimedia elements might include streaming
video, sound, and animation. So, the aim was to
identify whether the strategy of adding a facial
SKRWRUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHXVHUV¶FXOWXUHLVEHQH¿FLDO
when tested and can bias the trustworthiness of
vendor Web sites. Hence the following additional
research hypotheses were proposed:
H-3: Across Web sites including human portraits
WKHUH ZLOO EH VLJQL¿FDQW VWDWLVWLFDO GLIIHUHQFHV
in trustworthiness between Web sites with local
social presence and Web sites with foreign social
presence.
H-4: Saudi subjects will trust a Web site with
Saudi social presence (photo) more than a Web
site with Western social presence (photo).
EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
This study was designed as a one-factor experi-
ment manipulating three levels of Web site social
presence cues (or interpersonal cues). Each of
the four specially designed Web sites displayed
the same products but each represented different
vendors. Only the media cues were manipulated on
the sites. Thus, the study attempted to investigate
and examine the effects of the interpersonal cues

that can be manipulated by facial photographs,
video clips, and culture as control variables, which
used photos of Saudi and Western people when
forming the initial trust toward online vendors.
In addition the study set out to measure some
auxiliary parameters.
Experiment Participants
The experiment was conducted in an IT training
institute in Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(KSA). The number of participants totaled 72
students. Since online consumers are generally
younger and more highly educated than conven-
tional customers, student samples are close to
the online consumer population (McKnigh et al.,
2002) and therefore are representative of online
shoppers (Gefen & Straub, 2004).
Experiment Material
An initial survey on the most popular online prod-
ucts was carried out and found that laptops came
¿ U V W L Q S R S X O D U L W \ 7 K H V W L P X OX V H [ S H U L P H QW P D W H -
rial used in this research was carefully selected,
having noted that previous studies in online trust
used mock-ups of shopping sites to test the effect
of interpersonal cues (e.g., Riegelsberger et al.,
2002; Steinbruck et al., 2002). This experiment
used semi-functional copies of existing vendors’
sites, chosen in consultation with the four most
famous reviewer business sites; BizRate.com,
ResellerRating.com, Price Grabber.com, and
Epinion.com to facilitate the task of rating online

shopping sites. These services aggregate feedback
from customers of e-commerce vendors based on
post service and handling of privacy and security,
which represents an aspect of vendor trustworthi-
ness. Western shopping sites were selected as they
constitute a realistic scenario with relatively high
risk, due to the vendor and the users being in two
different countries. The selection was based on
the rating of high trustworthiness of the vendors
and the number of reviewers of the selected site.
Also we made a usability test for the four vendors’
Web sites to check the usability index for each
Web site and to make sure that all selected Web
sites had almost the same usability criteria. To do
W K D W  ZH D V N H G ¿ Y H S D U W L F L S D QW V W R X V H W K H F K H F N O L V W 
developed by Keevil (1998) to measure the us-
1513
The Human Face of E-Business
ability index of the four Web sites. The checklist
KDV RYHU  TXHVWLRQV LQ ¿YH FDWHJRULHV DQG
even though it is not very recent, it is still valid
and robust. The results showed that the four Web
sites had almost the same usability index.
Semi-functional copies of the Web site includ-
ing the home page and some subsequent layers
depending on the available links in each layer
were designed so that participants were able to
browse and search general information about the
VLWH$OVRDQ\FHUWL¿FDWLRQRUUHSXWDWLRQVHDOVWKDW
were present on some pages were removed.

Photos and the video clip were selected by
¿YHSURIHVVLRQDOVLQFRPSXWLQJDQGEXVLQHVV
who were asked to rate the photos and select the
most appropriate based on a realistic image of
a customer service representative. The media
cues (photo or video clip) were placed in attrac-
WLYHSODFHVLQWKH¿UVWSDJHRIWKHVLWHVKRZLQJ
the selected product (without deleting or hiding
anything from the page itself). This page was
connected to the entire Web site so the subject
could browse and search the site. In addition,
each media cue was presented into each vendor
:HEVLWHEDVHGRQDSUHGH¿QHG:HEVLWHVGLVSOD\
scenario (see Figure 1).
Data Collection
The research methodology of studies on trust
in e-commerce can be categorized into qualita-
tive approaches, using either semi-structured
interviews (e.g., Egger, 2001), or qualitative
interviews in conjunction with user evaluation
Figure 1 Snap shot of the experimental Web sites