Electronic Business: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications (4-Volumes) P159 docx

1514
The Human Face of E-Business
sessions (e.g., Witkowski, Neville, & Pitt, 2003).
The second category entails trust questionnaires
in an experiment environment, in this approach
the majority of studies used an experiential sur-
vey, that is, participants were asked to navigate
WRDVSHFL¿HGRUVHOIVHOHFWHG,QWHUQHWFRPSDQ\
DQGKDGWRSHUIRUPVHYHUDOSUHGH¿QHGWDVNVDQG
DIWHUZDUGVUHSRUWRQWKHLULPSUHVVLRQVE\¿OOLQJ
out a questionnaire (e.g., Jarvenpaa et al., 2000).
A second group of studies that used this approach,
applied a basic survey approach, that is, subjects
were administered a questionnaire or they were
pointed to an online-questionnaire form without
previously visiting any e-commerce Web site (e.g.,
Bhattacherjee, 2002). The third category involves
social dilemma games, studies in this category
measure players’ rate of cooperation and defection
to infer media effects on trust and trustworthy
behavior (e.g., Brosig et al., 2002).
From a clear review of these approaches, there
are distinct advantages and disadvantages. For
this study it was decided to use the hypothesis-
testing laboratory and experimental quantitative
approach. This approach allows a high level of
experimental control for independent variables
while keeping resource requirements relatively
low.
All experimental tasks during this research
experiment were performed in a computer labo-

ratory. The research instrument to measure the
constructs of interest was developed by adapting
existing measures from the literature to the cur-
rent research context. All items were scored on
D¿YHSRLQW/LNHUWW\SHVFDOHUDQJLQJIURP
strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree (see Ap-
pendix 1). As the experiment was conducted in
an Arabic speaking country, the questionnaire,
originally written in English, was translated
into Arabic by a bilingual person whose native
language is Arabic. The Arabic questionnaire
was then translated back into English by another
bilingual person. This English version was then
compared with the original version and no items
ZHUHIRXQGWRGHYLDWH VLJQL¿FDQWO\LQWHUPVRI
language. This process was conducted not only
because it can prevent any distortions in meaning
across cultures, but also because it can enhance
the translation quality. The study question items
FRQVLVWHGRI¿YHVHFWLRQV7KH¿UVWVHFWLRQLQFOXGHG
the basic demographic characteristics such as age,
gender, education level, and Internet experience.
In the second section, respondents were asked
to answer questions on their online purchasing
experience. In the third section, respondents were
tested for their trust propensity or disposition to
trust DQ LQGLYLGXDO WUDLW GH¿QHG DV D ³JHQHUDO
willingness based on extended socialization to
depend on others” (McKnight & Chervany, 2001).
The questionnaire items were selected based on

their high reliability and validity to discriminate
the construct and achieve a high Cronbach alpha
value; this was adapted from Teo and Liu (2005)
and Gefen (2000). In the fourth section, respon-
dents were asked to answer a question adapted
from McKnigh et al. (2002) regarding their belief
towards the Internet as a new medium or as a new
HQYLURQPHQWLHKRZFRQ¿GHQWWKH\IHHOLQWKH
Internet system). This item was adapted based on
high value of reliability and validity—its Cronbach
DOSKDYDOXHZDV7KH¿IWKVHFWLRQWHVWHGUH-
spondents on their trust and trust intentions toward
the e-commerce vendor. The questionnaire items
UHÀHFWHGWKHPRVWFRPPRQWUXVWEHOLHIGLPHQ-
sions, which are ability, integrity, and benevolence.
Also it measured trust intentions—intentions to
engage in trust-related behaviors with the Web
vendor. All items in this section were adapted
from Kammerer (2000), since his questionnaire
items effectively discriminate trustworthy from
less trustworthy online vendors. Also, Kammerer
reports excellent reliability scores with Cronbach
alpha values of 0.97%.
Experimental Procedure and Tasks
Previous online trust research has been criticized
for relying on measuring trust without inducing
any form of risk (Riegelsberger et al., 2003),
1515
The Human Face of E-Business
which represents an important key related to

trust. To overcome these criticisms, this study
LQGXFHG¿QDQFLDOULVNLQDODERUDWRU\VLWXDWLRQ
While it does not fully represent a real-world risk,
nevertheless, it allowed combining a laboratory
setting with some element of real-world risk by
informing participants that the experiment Web
site trustworthiness had been assessed and rated
by independent business reviewer sites and one of
their tasks was to identify the trustworthiness of
each shopping site; those whose rating matched
the real trustworthiness rate would be entered into
a lucky draw with prizes such as a laptop to be
offered in a random draw conducted at the end of
the study. In this way we induced a slightly higher
level of risk thus, increasing the realism of the
experiment and encouraging participation.
At the beginning of the experiment a brief
introduction and the total estimated time that it
would take were given. Then participants started
WKH¿UVWSDUWRIWKHH[SHULPHQWE\RSHQLQJWKH¿UVW
experiment page, which includes the experiment
objectives and instructions, then they started
¿OOLQJ RXW VHWV RI WKH ¿UVW IRXU TXHVWLRQQDLUHV
sections, which extracted some demographic
characteristics, online purchasing experience,
disposition to trust, and their belief towards the
Internet as a new medium or as a new environ-
ment. In the second part each subject was asked
to look at four Web sites and browse them. This
involved looking at the site and then evaluating

the e-commerce vendor using the online vendor
trust questionnaire. This process was repeated for
all four Web sites in the set. However, in order to
avoid predictability and the effect of learning by
subjects within the scenarios (the possibility that
participants exposed to a particular interface or
t a s k w o u l d d o b e t t e r t h e n e x t t i m e t h e y w e r e a s k e d
WRXVHLWZHGH¿QHGHDFKPHGLDFXHWRDSDUWLFXODU
vendor Web site since they had almost the same
usability criteria. Also, within the experiment
software we included a software module with the
capability to control the order display scenario of
the four Web sites so that different subjects would
receive each of the four experimental Web sites
in a different order.
:KHQVXEMHFWV¿QLVKHGWKH\ZHUHDVNHGWR
move on to the third part which comprised one
WDVN,QWKH¿UVWWDVNHDFKVXEMHFWZDVDVNHGWR
VHDUFKWKH¿UVW:HEVLWHVHHQDQGLPDJLQHWKDW
they had enough money to buy a laptop that would
serve their needs for the next two years. The sub-
jects were required to indicate the model, price,
DQGFHUWDLQSURGXFWVSHFL¿FDWLRQVRIWKHLU¿QDO
laptop choice. Once the participants had found
their products and completed their responses on
WKHLQVWUXFWLRQIRUPWKH\ZHUHDVNHGWR¿OORXW
the vendor trust questionnaire again.
DATA ANALYSIS
All data analysis was conducted using the SPSS
Windows software package. A total of 72 subjects

participated in this study, all male and between
the ages of 18-25 and 26-35 respectively; most
(79.2%) held bachelor degrees. As expected, this
group was Internet-savvy with over 39% of the
respondents spending between 6 and 10 hours
online per week. On average, the majority made
at least one online purchase per week and 28%
of the respondents spent 2000SR (1$=3.75SR) or
more per online purchase.
Testing the Research Hypotheses
The experiment analysis is based on the well-
known statistical test of Friedman. This test is
an alternative to the repeated measures analysis
of variance (ANOVA), when the assumption of
normality or equality of variance is not met. This,
like many non-parametric tests, uses the ranks of
the data rather than their raw values to calculate
the statistic.
This test was chosen because it is suitable for
comparing variant vendor Web sites embedded
with different media cues when the relative data
sample has some characteristics also presented in
1516
The Human Face of E-Business
this context, including the following ones (Peter
& Smeeton, 2001; Sheskin, 2004):
• The experimental data is not parametric, that
is, the dependent variables are not normally
distributed.
• The number of compared Web sites is two

and more. In our context, we typically com-
pared several vendors Web sites embedded
with different media cues.
• The same subjects were used to observe dif
-
ferent manipulation in vendors’ Web sites.
7RWHVWWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLVH-1), the Fried-
man test was used. This test was computed for
trust belief and trust intention of all Web sites to
VHHLIWKHUHZHUHDQ\VLJQL¿FDQWVWDWLVWLFDOGLIIHU-
ences between the subjects’ answers with regard
to the trustworthiness of the four Web sites. Two
W\SHVRIGDWDZHUHXVHGLQWKHDQDO\VLVWKH¿UVW
was the mean value of each subject answer, and
the second was the actual subject answer regard-
ing each questionnaire item. Results showed the
VXEMHFWVGLIIHUHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\RQWKHLUUDWLQJRI
their initial trust and trust intention regarding
the four vendors’ Web sites owing to the overall
VWDWLVWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFH3 DWOHYHOVXV-
LQJWKHWZRNLQGVRIGDWDVRWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLV
was supported (see Table 1).
In order to test the second hypothesis (H-2-a,
b, c) it was necessary to conduct comparisons
FRQWUDVWLQJVSHFL¿FFRQGLWLRQVZLWKRQHDQRWKHU
Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test was
recommended by Sheskin (2004) and Peter and
Smeeton (2001) for conducting the three pairwise
comparisons (video clip, photo, no photo) with
regard to trust belief and trust intention. Table 2

contains the results.
Trust Belief
Trust Intention
Ability Integrity Benevolence
N72727272
Friedman test Sig
at 5%
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Table 1. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the four Web sites
Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig
With photo
Trust Belief 1 Yes
Trust Intention 1 Yes
With video clip
Trust Belief 2 Yes
Trust Intention 2 No
With no photo Trust Belief 3 Yes
Table 2. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test
1517
The Human Face of E-Business
After reviewing the three analyses, it was
IRXQGWKDWDOOSDLUZLVHFRPSDULVRQVZHUHVLJQL¿-
cant, with the exception of the video-photo Web
site comparison in trust intention. Subjects rated
the trust belief and trust intention for the photo
Web site the highest, the video clip Web site next
highest, and the no photo Web site as the lowest.
Thus, the second hypothesis was only partially
supported, since the vendor Web site utilizing the
video clip came second rather than the expected

¿UVW SRVLWLRQ $ SRVVLEOH H[SODQDWLRQ IRU WKLV
unexpected result is that the video clip was not
recorded to professional standards.
The same procedure followed when testing the
¿UVWDQGWKHVHFRQGK\SRWKHVLVZDVDOVRXVHGWR
test the H-3 and the H-4 hypotheses, but in this
case between two vendor Web sites only, (the Web
site with the Saudi photo and the Web site with the
Western photo). The Friedman matched samples
results are shown in Table 3. The analysis showed
WKDWVXEMHFWVGLIIHUHGVLJQL¿FDQWO\RQWKHLUUDWLQJ
of their trust belief (ability and integrity, although
not for benevolence dimension), and also for trust
intention in respect of the two vendor Web sites
RYHUDOOVWDWLVWLFDOVLJQL¿FDQFHRIS DW
levels using the two kinds of data); so the third
hypothesis was fully supported (see Table 3).
With respect to the fourth hypothesis (H-4),
the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test
was conducted for comparison, contrasting spe-
FL¿FFRQGLWLRQVZLWKRQHDQRWKHUZLWKUHJDUGWR
trust belief and trust intention. Table 4 contains
the results.
From Wilcoxon test analyses, it can be said
W K DW SD L U Z L V H F RP SD U L V R Q Z D V V LJ Q L ¿F D QW 6 X EM H F W V 
rated the trust belief and trust intention for the
Web site using a Saudi photo as the highest; the
Web site with a Western photo next. So the fourth
hypothesis was supported.
Trust Belief Trust Intention

Ability Integrity Benevolence
N72727272
Friedman test Sig
at 5%
Yes Yes No Yes
Table 3. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the two Web sites
Web site Trust type Rank
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
Asymp.Sig
With Saudi photo
Trust Belief 1 Yes
Trust Intention 1 Yes
With Western photo
Trust Belief 2 Yes
Trust Intention 2 Yes
Table 4. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test
1518
The Human Face of E-Business
Analysis of the Exploration Depth
In terms of investigating the factor depth of a us-
ers’ exploration of a site (exploration depth) which
LQÀXHQFHVWKHHIIHFWRIPHGLDVXEMHFWRQXVHUWUXVW
5HVHDUFK *RDO  D VXSHU¿FLDO H[SORUDWLRQ RI
the home page and additional pages with no task
browsing was compared to a subsequent in-depth
Table 8. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test
Trust Belief Trust Intention
Ability Integrity Benevolence
N72727272
Friedman test Sig

at 5%
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Table 5. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the four Web sites
Trust Belief
Trust Intention
Ability Integrity Benevolence
N72727272
Friedman test Sig
at 5%
Yes Yes No Yes
Table 6. Friedman test for trust belief and trust intention between the two Web sites
Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig
With photo
Trust Belief 1 Yes
Trust Intention 1 Yes
With video clip
Trust Belief 2 Yes
Trust Intention 2 Yes
With no photo
Trust Belief 3 Yes
Trust Intention 3 Yes
Table 7. Results of Wilcoxon signed rank test
Web site Trust type Rank Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Asymp.Sig
With Saudi photo
Trust Belief 1 Yes
Trust Intention 1 Yes
With Western photo
Trust Belief 2 Yes
Trust Intention 2 Yes
1519

The Human Face of E-Business
exploration of a vendor’s site, beyond the home
SDJHZLWKSUHGH¿QHGWDVNEURZVLQJ+HQFHHDFK
SDUWLFLSDQWLQWKLVVFHQDULRVDZWKH¿UVWYHQGRU¶V
VLWHWZLFH¿UVWRQO\WKHKRPHSDJHDQGWKHDG-
ditional pages that were linked from it, but with
DJHQHUDOEURZVLQJWDVNVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQ
then the home page and additional pages, but with
WKH VSHFL¿F WDVN RILPDJLQDU\ SXUFKDVLQJ²DQ
in-depth exploration. The introduction of the
exploration depth was used for several reasons.
Most trust models indicated that browsing time is
an essential factor affecting trust. Initial trust in
WKH¿UVWHQFRXQWHUGHSHQGVRQIDFWRUVRWKHUWKDQ
behavioral trust that emerges from a long-standing
relationship. Applying this consideration to the
initial trust that can be measured in a laboratory
experiment, it can be proposed that the level of
trust will be based upon factors other than initial
trust after a detailed exploration of the site. A
media cue might have a strong effect based on a
TXLFNORRNEXWPLJKWORVHLWVVLJQL¿FDQFHRQFH
more information (e.g., from a site’s security
and privacy policies) is obtainable. On the other
KDQGLWFDQEHH[SHFWHGWKDWWKH¿UVWLPSUHVVLRQ
HJL QÀXHQFHGE\DPHGLDFXHFDQFRORUI XU W KHU
information processing and thus have a long-term
effect (Baron & Byrne, 2004).
The same analysis techniques were used in
LQYHVWLJDWLQJ WKH GDWD 7KH DQDO\VLVFRQ¿UPHG

WKHVDPH¿QGLQJWKDWWKHUHZDVDVWDWLVWLFDOVLJ-
QL¿FDQFHEHWZHHQWUXVWRIWKHIRXUYHQGRUV¶:HE
sites, where the Web sites with a facial photo were
UDQNHG¿UVWDQGW KHQWKRVHZLWKDYLGHRFO LS$ OVR
the vendor Web site with a Saudi photo was trusted
PRUH VWDWLVWLFDOO\ VLJQL¿FDQW WKDQ WKDW ZLWK D
Western photo (see Tables 5, 6, 7, and 8).
Finally, many nonparametric correlation tests
were conducted to see whether there were any
VLJQL¿FDQWUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHWUXVWEHOLHI
trust intention and participants’ trust disposition;
system assurance; age; education level; or Internet
XVDJH5HVXOWVVKRZHGQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW
differences between any of these variables.
DISCUSSION
This experiment investigated initial trust in e-
c o m m e r c e v e n d o r s . I t e x p l o r e d t h e e f f e c t o f a d d i n g
a media cue (video clip or facial photo) to the home
page of an e-commerce vendor and the effect of
interpersonal cues that are implicit in media cues,
on users’ trust in that vendor. It further studied the
effect of the culture represented by a facial photo
of a Western or Saudi man on users’ trust in that
vendor. The factor depth of a users’ exploration
RIDVLWHH[SORUDWLRQGHSWKZDVIRXQGWRLQÀX-
ence the effect of media cue on user trust. On a
methodological level, the study aimed to overcome
part of the limitations of conventionally used trust
questionnaires conducted under conditions of no
¿QDQFLDOULVNE\LQWURGXFLQJWUXVWTXHVWLRQQDLUHV

WKDWZHUHHOLFLWHGXQGHU¿QDQFLDOULVN
7KHDQDO\VHVIRXQGWKDWWKHUHZHUHVLJQL¿FDQW
differences in vendors’ trustworthiness. This
supports earlier research by Fogg et al. (2001)
and Steinbrueck and Schaumburg (2002), and
SURYLGHVVXSSRUWIRUWKH¿UVWK\SRWKHVLV,WZDV
found that media cues can manipulate and bias us-
ers’ judgments towards vendors’ trustworthiness
based upon inspection of surface cues. Thus, this
experiment demonstrated that users can perceive
the trustworthiness of a vendor from the surface
cues that are present in a media cue displayed as
part of the user interface.
Results from the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test
for responses given by subjects on the vendors
trust belief and trust intention showed favor for
WKH 6DXGL SKRWR ¿UVW ZLWK WKH :HVWHUQ YLGHR
clip as second and the Western photo as third
LQ WKH VXSHU¿FLDO H[SORUDWLRQ WDVN ZKLOH DIWHU
in-depth exploration participants showed more
trusting responses to the media cue vendors’ in
terms of trust, and in their declared measures of
preference.
An interesting and important result is that the
effect of trust was improved once users explored
vendors’ sites in greater depth, once they had
1520
The Human Face of E-Business
ORRNHGI X U WKHUIRUDVSHFL¿FWDVNLQSDJHVEH\RQG
the home page. It can be interpreted that the cues

that carried reliable information about a vendors’
trustworthiness were perceived, and media cues
FRXOGHDVLO\LQÀXHQFHWKLVGHFLVLRQ+HQFHDPH-
dia cue has a long-term effect on user trust and it
biases the perception of other site elements (Baron
& Byrne, 2004). Rather, the additional informa-
tion perceived on additional pages improved the
relative impact of the media cue.
In contrast to earlier studies on the effect of
photos on e-commerce sites, this experiment
investigated the effect of two different cultural
photos (Western man and Saudi man) across
two different e-commerce sites. This experiment
found a bias for the presence of the Saudi photo
over the Western photo in terms of trust measures
LQWKHVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQWDVNLQWKHGHSWK
exploration task, and in terms of preference.
CONCLUSION
This experiment addressed the main research
goals of the study. First, it investigated a media
FXH¶VIDFLDOSKRWRRUYLGHRFOLSDELOLW\WRLQÀX-
ence user trust in respect of e-commerce vendors,
based on surface cues that were implemented in the
me d ia cue. T h is go al is of h ig h r ele va nc e, be cau se
this strategy is now being used by e-commerce
vendors (especially facial photographs, but not yet
video) in an attempt to increase trust and attract
customers. Secondly, this research tested the ef-
fect on user trust of adding a facial photo from
two different cultures (Western and Saudi) to an

e-commerce vendor’s home page. It thus focused
on the symbolic use of interpersonal cues. This
goal, despite its importance for the development
of trust in e-commerce, has not been addressed
in previous research. Thirdly, the experiment was
concerned with investigating how time, as an
independent variable, represented by the depth of
a users’ exploration of a site (exploration depth),
LQÀXHQFHVWKHHIIHFWRIDPHGLDFXHRQXVHUWUXVW
E\FRPSDULQJDVXSHU¿FLDOH[SORUDWLRQRIWKH
home page and additional pages with no task
browsing to a subsequent in-depth exploration
of a vendor’s site beyond the home page with
SUHGH¿QHGWDVNEURZVLQJ)RXUWKO\PRVWRIWKH
previous studies tested the effects of adding one
photo to a mock-up of one e-commerce site. This
experiment aimed to overcome this limitation by
testing several photos on several semi-functional
copies of existing vendors’ sites. In addition, this
experiment introduced a method for measuring
trust that required participants to make decisions
XQGHUFRQGLWLRQVRI¿QDQFLDOULVN
This experiment found that media cues in
the interface are indeed able to affect a vendor’s
trustworthiness based on the surface cues it
contains.
A clear picture emerged regarding the effect of
photos from different cultures. The experimental
results found a positive effect of the media cues
LQWKHWZRVWDJHVRIH[SORUDWLRQ²DVXSHU¿FLDO

exploration and an in-depth exploration of a
vendors’ Web site. These visceral reactions,
however, appear to color the subsequent process-
ing of signals, as their effect improved with the
perception of additional signals from an in-depth
exploration.
From a methodology point of view, this experi-
PHQWYHUL¿HGWKDW¿QDQFLDOULVNFDQEHXVHGLQD
laboratory experiment to enhance the validity of
trust research. Analyzing users’ behavior leads
to a relevant outcome to e-commerce vendors
since they are concerned with users’ purchase
decisions.
:LWKUHVSHFWWRLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHLQÀXHQFH
of the auxiliary variables on trust, such as trust
disposition, system assurance, age, education
level, and Internet usage, the experiment did not
¿QGDQ\VLJQL¿FDQWHYLGHQFHWKDWFRXOGVXSSRUW
DQ\NLQGRILQÀXHQFH
)L Q D O O\ E D V H G R Q W K H ¿ Q G L Q J V RI W K HH [ S H U L P H Q W 
it is suggested that Web designers and e-com-
merce vendors should keep in mind the following
recommendations when introducing e-commerce
1521
The Human Face of E-Business
applications in Middle Eastern countries in gen-
eral, and in Saudi Arabia in particular:
7KHUHLVDVLJQL¿FDQWHIIHFWRIDPHGLDFXHLQ
B2C e-commerce Web sites. Users arriving at a
VLWHKRPHSDJHZLOOGHFLGHEDVHGXSRQWKHLU¿UVW

impressions, whether to explore the site in more
depth or leave it and go instead to a competitor’s
site. The positive, attractive impressions of a
media cue can thus help e-commerce vendors in
the process of converting a visitor to a customer.
7KH ¿QGLQJV RI WKLV H[SHULPHQW XQGHUOLQH WKH
importance of the interface as a communicator
of trustworthiness.
In B2C e-commerce applications it is very
important to take cultural aspects into consider-
ation when designing an e-commerce Web site.
It is expected that when Web sites are appropri-
ate and culturally sensitive, then users will have
increased access to content and enhanced user
experiences. Selecting photos of customer service
representatives that relate to targeted markets
represent an easy way to enhance the vendors’
trustworthiness.
REFERENCES
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding
attitudes and predicting social behavior. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
AlDiri, K., & Hobbs, D. (2006). Effects of four
computer-mediated communications channels
on trust development in B2C e-commerce: An
empirical Saudi Arabian study. Paper presented
at the Seventh Informatics Workshop, Bradford
University, UK.
Al-Diri, K., Hobbs, D., & Qahwaji, R. (2006).
Effects of social presence and cultural representa-

tion on Websites for promoting trust in B2C e-com-
merce—A Saudi Arabian study. Paper presented at
the Proceedings of the IADIS e-Commerce 2006
International Conference, Barcelona, Spain.
Bagozzi, R. P., Wong, N., Abe, S., & Bergami,
M. (2000). Cultural and situational contingencies
and the theory of reasoned action: Application
to fast food restaurant consumption. Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 9(2), 97-106.
Baier, A. (1986). Trust and antitrust. Ethics, 96,
231-260.
Bhattacherjee, A. (2002). Individual trust in
RQOLQH¿UPV6FDOHGHYHORSPHQWDQGLQLWLDOWHVW
Journal of Management Information Systems,
19(1), 211.
Bickmore, T. W., & Picard, R. W. (2005). Establish-
ing and maintaining long-term human-computer
relationships. ACM Transactions on Computer-
Human Interaction, 12(2), 293-327.
Brosig, J., Ockenfels, A., & Weimann, J. (2002).
The effects of communication media on coopera-
tion. German Economic Review, 4(2), 217-241.
Chen, S. C., & Dhillon, G. S. (2003). Interpreting
dimensions of consumer trust in e-commerce.
Information Technology and Management, 4(2-
3), 303.
Chow, S., & Holden, R. (1997). Toward an under-
standing of loyalty the moderating role of trust.
Journal of Managerial Issues, 9(3), 275-298.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S.

(2003). On-line trust: Concepts, evolving themes,
a model. International Journal of Human-Com-
puter Studies, 58(6), 737-758.
Cyr, D., & Trevor-Smith, H. (2004). Localiza-
tion of Web design: An empirical comparison of
German, Japanese, and United States Web site
characteristics. Journal of the American Society
for Information Science and Technology, 55(13),
1199-1206.
Egger, F. N. (2001, June 27-29). Affective design
of e-commerce user interface: How to maximize
perceived trustworthiness. Paper presented at the
1522
The Human Face of E-Business
International Conference on Affective Human
Factors Design, Singapore.
Ernst & Young. (2002). Gulf cooperation council
eCommerce study: Gulf Cooperation Council.
Feng, J., Lazar, J., & Preece, J. (2004). Empathy
and online interpersonal trust: A fragile rela-
tionship. Behaviour & Information Technology,
23(2), 97-106.
Ferle, C., Edwards, S., & Mizuno, Y. (2002). In-
ternet diffusion in Japan: Cultural consideration.
Journal of Advertising Research, 65-79.
Fogg, B. J. (2002). Stanford guidelines for Web
credibility A research summary from the Stan-
ford persuasive technology lab. Retrieved from
/>Fogg, B. J., Marshall, J., Kameda, T., Solomon, J.,
Rangnekar, A., Boyd, J., et al. (2001). Web cred-

ibility research: A method for online experiments
and early study results. Paper presented at the
CHI’01 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors
in Computing Systems, Seattle, WA.
Fromkin, V., & Rodman, J. (1983). An intro-
duction to language. New York: CBS College
Publishing.
Fulk, J., Schmitz, J., & Power, G. J. (1987). A
social information processing model of media
use in organizations. Communication Research,
14, 520-552.
Gefen, D. (2000). E-commerce: The role of famil-
iarity and trust. Omega: The International Journal
of Management Science, 28(6), 725-737.
*HIHQ'5HÀHFWLRQVRQWKHGLPHQVLRQV
of trust and trustworthiness among online con-
sumers. Database for Advances in Information
Systems, 33(3), 38.
Gefen, D., & Straub, W. D. (2004). Consumer
trust in B2C e-commerce and the importance of
social presence: Experiments in e-products and
e-services. Omega.Oxford, 32(6), 407.
Grewal, G., Munger, J. L., Iyer, G. R., & Levy, J.
7KHLQÀXHQFHRI,QWHUQHWUHWDLOLQJIDFWRUV
on price expectations. Psychology and Marketing,
20(6), 477-493.
Hassanein, K., & Head, M. M. (2004). Manipulat-
ing social presence through the Web interface and
its impact on consumer attitude towards online
shopping. Paper presented at the McMaster eBusi-

ness Research Centre (MeRC). Working Paper
Series. Hamilton, ON, Canada.
Hillier, M. (2003). The role of cultural context in
multilingual Website usability. Electronic Com-
merce Research and Applications, 2, 2-14.
Horn, D. B., Olson, J. S., & Karasik, L. (2002).
The effects of spatial and temporal video distor-
tion on lie detection performance. Proceedings of
the Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems (pp. 714-715).
Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Tractinsky, N. (1999). Con-
sumer trust in an Internet store a cross-cultural
validation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Com-
munication, 5(2), 1-35.
Jarvenpaa, S. L., Tractinsky, N., & Vitale, M.
(2000). Consumer trust in an Internet store. In-
formation Technology and Management, 1(1-2),
45-71.
Johnson-George, C., & Swap, W. C. (1982).
0HDVXUHPHQW RI VSHFL¿F LQWHUSHUVRQDO WUXVW
Construction and validation of a scale to assess
WUXVWLQDVSHFL¿FRWKHUJournal of Personal &
Social Psychology, 43(6), 1306-1307.
Jones, M. A. (1999). Entertaining shopping expe-
riences: An exploratory investigation. Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services, 6.
.DFHQ-/HH-$7KHLQÀXHQFHRI
culture on consumer impulsive buying behavior.
Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(2), 163-
176.

1523
The Human Face of E-Business
Kammerer, M. (2000). Die Bestimmung von
Vertrauen in Internetangebote. Zurich: Lizen-
ziatsarbeit der Philisophischen Fakultaet der
Universitaet Zurich.
Kang, K. S., & Corbitt, B. (2001). Effectiveness of
graphical components in Web site e-commerce ap-
plication—A cultural perspective. The Electronic
Journal Systems in Developing Countries.
Keevil, B. (1998, September 24-26). Measuring
the usability index of your Web site. Paper pre-
sented at the the annual Special Interest Group on
Systems Documentation conference, SIGDOC98,
Quebec City, Canada.
Kotler, P. (2002). Marketing management. Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Krauter, S. G., Kaluscha, E. A., & Fladnitzer, M.
(2006). Perspectives of online trust and similar
FRQVWUXFWV²$ FRQFHSWXDO FODUL¿FDWLRQ Paper
presented at the ICEC’06, Fredericton, Canada.
Kumar, N., & Benbasat, I. (2002). Para-social
presence and communication capabilities of a
Web site: A theoretical perspective. e-Service
Journal, 1(3).
Lewicki, R. J., & Bunker, B. B. (1995). Trust in
relationships: A model of trust development and
decline. In I. B. B. B. J. Z. Rubin (Ed.), &RQÀLFW
cooperation and justice (pp. 133-173). San Fran-
cisco.

Lewis, J. D., & Weigert, A. (1985). Trust as a social
reality. Social Forces, 63(4), 967-985.
Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power. London:
Wiley.
Marcus, A., & Gould, E. W. (2000). Cultural di-
mensions and global Web user interface design.
Interactions, 33-46.
Mayer, R. C., Davis, J. H., & Schoorman, F. D.
(1995). An integrative model of organizational
trust. The Academy of Management Review,
3(20), 709-734.
McAllister, D. J. (1995). Affect- and cognition-
based trust as foundations for interpersonal coop-
eration in organizations. Academy of Management
Journal, 38(1), 24-59.
McKnigh, D. H., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C.
(2002). Developing and validating trust measures
for e-commerce: An integrative typology. Infor-
mation Systems Research, 13(3), 334.
McKnight, D., & Chervany, N. (2001). What
trust means in e-commerce customer relation-
ships: An interdisciplinary conceptual typology.
International Journal Of Electronic Commerce,
6(2), 35-59.
McKnight, D. H., Choudhury, V., & Kacmar, C.
(2002). The impact of initial consumer trust on
Intentions to transact with a Web site: A trust
building model. Journal of Strategic Information
Systems, 11(3/4), 297-323.
McKnight, D. H., Cummings, L. L., & Chervany,

N. L. (1998). Initial trust formation in new orga-
nizational relationships. AMR, 3(23), 472-490.
Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure
of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality,
40, 525-543.
Nass, C., Moon, C., Fogg, Y., Reeves, B. J., &
Dryer, D. C. (1996). Can computer personalities
be human personalities? International Journal of
Human-Computer Studies, 43, 223-239.
Nass, C., Moon, Y., & Carney, P. (1999). Are re-
spondents polite to computers? Social desirability
and direct responses to computers. Journal of
Applied Social Psychology, 5(29), 1093-1110.
Nielsen, J. (1996). Top ten mistakes in Web design.
Retrieved February 8, 2006, from .
com/columns/alertbox/9605.html
Peter, S., & Smeeton, N. C. (2001). Applied non-
parametric statistical methods. CRC Press.