Mối quan hệ giữa việc sử dụng các chiến lược học từ vựng với tính tự chủ của sinh viên không chuyên năm thứ nhất của trường Đại học Kỹ Thuật Công Nghiệp - Thái

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THƯƠNG HUYỀN

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE USE OF VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNER AUTONOMY OF THE
1ST YEAR NON-MAJOR ENGLISH STUDENTS AT THAINGUYEN
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
(Mối quan hệ giữa việc sử dụng các chiến lược học từ vựng với tính tự chủ
của sinh viên năm thứ nhất không chuyên tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Kỹ
Thuật Công Nghiệp Thái Nguyên)

M.A MINOR PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10

Hanoi - 2012


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

NGUYỄN THỊ THƯƠNG HUYỀN

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE USE OF VOCABULARY
LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNER AUTONOMY OF THE
1ST YEAR NON-MAJOR ENGLISH STUDENTS AT THAINGUYEN

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
(Mối quan hệ giữa việc sử dụng các chiến lược học từ vựng với tính tự chủ
của sinh viên năm thứ nhất không chuyên tiếng Anh tại trường Đại học Kỹ
Thuật Công Nghiệp Thái Nguyên)

M.A MINOR PROGRAM THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 60.14.10
Supervisor: Đỗ Bá Quý, M.Ed.

Hanoi - 2012


TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION……………….………………………………………..………….i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………….…………………………………………..ii
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………..iii
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES……………………………………………….vi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………..vii
PART A: INTRODUCTION
1.Rationale………………..…………………………………………………….…..1

2. Aims of study………………………..………………………………..………..…2
3. Scope of the study……………………….………………………………………..2
4. Methods of the study………….……………………….………………...…...…...3
5. Significance of the study…………………………..…..……..………...…………3
6. Organization of the study……………………….…….………………...………...3
PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Learner autonomy…………………………….…….……...……………….......4
1.1.1.Definition of learner autonomy…………………….…….…………………...4
1.1.2. Characteristics of autonomous language learners…………………….……...5
1.1.3. Factors affecting learner autonomy…………………………………………..7
1.2. Language learning strategies………………...………….………….…..…….....9
1.2.1. Definition of language learning strategies…………………………….…….10
1.2.2. Definition of vocabulary learning strategies………………………………..11
1.2.3. Classification of vocabulary learning strategies……………………………11
1.3. The effect of learner autonomy and language learning strategies on successful
language learning……………….…...………...…………………………………...12
1.3.1. The effect of learner autonomy on successful language learning………….12
1.3.2. The effect of learning strategies on successful and autonomous language
learning......................................................................................................................13
1.4. Summary…………...…….……...…………………………………………….15

iv


CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
2.1. Research questions and descriptions of variables………….……..…………..16
2.1.1. Research questions………………...……………………………….………..16
2.1.2. Descriptions of variables………………………...………………….……….16
2.2. Participants…………………………………………………….…..……..……16
2.3. Data collection instruments…………...………………………………………17
2.3.1. Questionnaire………………………………………………………………..17
2.3.2. Autonomous learner checklist……….………………………………………18
2.4. Data collection procedures………………...…………………………………..20
2.5. Data analysis……………..…………………………………..………………..20
2.5.1. Questionnaire data analysis……………………………………………….…20
2.5.2. Autonomous learner checklist analysis…………………………….……….21

2.5.3.The analysis of the correlation between two variables: the use of vocabulary
learning strategies and learner autonomy………….……………………………….21
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. The respondents‟ profile…………………………………….………………...23
3.2. The students‟ use of vocabulary learning strategies……………………..…....24
3.3. The level of students‟ autonomy………...…………………………………….28
3.4.

The

students‟

use

of

vocabulary

learning

strategies

and

learner

autonomy…………………………………………………………………….……..32
3.4.1. The results of determining the form, direction and degree of the correlation on
a graph and by regression analysis…………………………………………………33
3.4.2. The results of determining the relationship between the students‟ use of

vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy with Paired Sample Ttest………………………………………...…………………………………..……35
3.4.3. Discussion of the results of the association between the students‟ use of
vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy……………………………..36
3.5. Summary……………………...…………...…………………………………..37
PART C: CONCLUSION
1.Conclusions…………………………...…..……………….……………….……38
v


2. Implications……………………………………………….……………………..39
3. Limitations of the study………………………………...….……………………41
4. Suggestions for further research………………………….……..…………....…41
REFERENCES…...……………………………………………………………….42
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: SCHMITT‟S TAXONOMY OF VOCABULARY LEARNING
STRATEGIES (1997)………………………………………………………………ix
APPENDIX 2: QUESTIONNAIRE (English version)……………………………..xi
APPENDIX 3: AUTONOMOUS LEARNER CHECKLIST (English version).....xvi
APPENDIX 4: QUESTIONNAIRE (Vietnamese version)………...……………xviii
APPENDIX

5:

AUTONOMOUS

LEARNER

CHECKILST

(Vietnamese

version)…………………………………………………………..………………xxiii
APPENDIX

6:

RESULTS OF

THE

RESPONDENTS‟

BACKGROUND

INFORMATION……………………………………………………...…………..xxv

vi


LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
Table 1.1: Dependent and Autonomous Learners……………………………...

6

Table 2.1: Informants‟ background information of the survey………………...

17

Table 3.1: The use of vocabulary learning strategies…………………………..

24

Table 3.2: Learner autonomy checklist………………………………………..

28

Table 3.3: The regression of the Correlation between the students‟ use of
vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy………………………….

33

Table 3.4: The coefficient size of the relationship between the students‟ use of
vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy………………………….

34

Table 3.5: The coefficients in the pattern………………………………………

34

Table 3.6: Mean and Standard Deviation of the scores of the use of VLSs and
learner autonomy……………………………………………………………….

35

Table 3.7: Correlation of the use of VLSs and learner autonomy…………….

35

Table 3.8: Paired t-test Analysis of the scores of the use of VLS and learner
autonomy……………………………………………………………………….. 36
FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Vocabulary learning strategy use results………………………….

25

Figure 3.2: Learner autonomy results…………………………………………

29

Figure 3.3: The linear relationship between TNUT students‟ use of
vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy…………………………

vii

33


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LLS: Language learning strategy
LLSs: Language learning strategies
M: Mean
N: Number of respondents
P: Probability
R: Correlation coefficient
SD: Standard Deviation
TNUT: Thainguyen University of Technology
VLS: Vocabulary learning strategy
VLSs: Vocabulary learning strategies

viii


PART A: INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale of the study
Learner autonomy has gradually come into existence and become one of
prominent themes since the 1970s as a consequence of a new shift in study interests
on language learning. Few would doubt that learner autonomy in language learning
can lead to positive outcomes, such as the development of life-long learners.
Besides, Oxford (1990) adds that language learning strategies also encourage
greater overall self-direction which is particularly important for language learners,
because they will not always have the teacher around to guide them as they use the
language outside the classroom. In addition, Wenden (1991) also emphasizes that
learners need to be aware of different learning strategies so that they can become
autonomous language learners. They will become not only efficient at learning and
using their second language but also enable them to self-direct these endeavors.
Obviously, language learning strategies play an important role in fostering learner
autonomy.
Undoubtedly, learner autonomy in vocabulary learning has become a necessity
for English language learners in higher education institutions that adopt either
traditional or open education nowadays. One of the areas that has the greatest
potential for adopting learner autonomy is vocabulary (McCarthy, 1990). Therefore,
exploring the relationship between the use of vocabulary learning strategy and
learner autonomy is particularly necessary and helpful.
Despite being discussed worldwide, learner autonomy remains a fairly novel
concept in Vietnam and Thainguyen University of Technology is no exception.
Benson, Chik & Lim (2003) explained that since the idea of learner autonomy
originated from Western cultures, it hardly suffices to just transfer the concept to an
Asian context. Besides, vocabulary plays an important role because students at

TNUT need to learn English in the two years of their course with emphasis on
English for Specific Purposes studies in the second year. However, after seven years
studying English at school, most tertiary students continue to find learning
vocabulary a difficult task, so they have to depend on teachers and dictionaries so
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much that their scores in English learning are not high. As mentioned, language
learning strategies contributes effectively to the enhancement of learner autonomy.
Hence, it is useful to develop TNUT first year students‟ use of vocabulary learning
strategies, and thereby fostering the learner autonomy to higher learning outcome
expectations.
For both practical and theoretical reasons, there is a pressing need for the
researcher to carry out this study to explore what the relationship between the use of
students‟ vocabulary learning strategies and the learner autonomy is.
2. Aims of the study
The study is aimed at improving the use of vocabulary learning strategies and
the learner autonomy by determining the relationship between the use of students‟
vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy. To achieve this aim, the three
following specific objectives are to be obtained:
 The level of TNUT first year students‟ use of vocabulary learning
strategies is investigated.
 The level of learner autonomy is measured.
 The relationship between TNUT first year students‟ use of vocabulary
learning strategies and learner autonomy is decided.
3. Scope of the study
The focus of the study is on the level of TNUT students‟ use of vocabulary
learning strategies; students‟ degree of learner autonomy and the relationship
between the students‟ use of English vocabulary learning strategies and their level
of learner autonomy.

4. Methods of the study
To achieve the above aims, a study is carried out as a survey using mainly
quantitative approach for data collection and analysis from different sources. First, a
survey questionnaire is carried out on first year students at TNUT to investigate
their frequent use of vocabulary learning strategies. Next, autonomous learner
checklist is used to collect data to find out how autonomous the students are. After

2


that, the results of the collected data are computed and analyzed using Statistical
Package for the Social Science (SPSS), version 17.0 to explore the relationship
between their vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy.
5. Significance of the study
The researcher hopes that the findings of the study would help her to know the
level of vocabulary learning strategy use and degree of learner autonomy of the
TNUT students and the relationship between them. The results of the study would
help to develop students‟ vocabulary learning in English as well as foster their
learner autonomy in order to improve English teaching and learning process at
TNUT.
6. Organization of the study
The research paper is organized in three main parts as follows:
Part A: Introduction
This part presents the rationale, aim, scope, method and organization of the
study.
Part B: Development
This part is divided into different chapters. Chapter 1 (Literature Review)
provides theoretical background, covering definitions and related theories. Chapter
2 (Methodology) justifies and describes the methodology of the study in details.
Chapter 3 (Results and Discussion) presents full analysis of the collected data and

discusses findings.
Part C: Conclusion
This part recaps the main content of the study and deals with some suggestions
for improving the use of vocabulary learning strategies as well as learner autonomy.
In addition, it also poses several directions for future research.

3


PART B: DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews theories related to terminological definitions of learner
autonomy, characteristics of autonomous language learners, factors affecting learner
autonomy, language learning strategies in general and vocabulary learning
strategies in particular. It also summarizes some studies on the effect of LLSs and
learner autonomy on successful language learning that have been conducted so far.
1.1. Learner autonomy
For over twenty years, the notion of learner autonomy has attracted attention
from many researchers. It is understandable because autonomous learners satisfy
what democratic societies require (Hedge, 2000) and also meet the demand of
highly technological societies (Knowles, 1976, cited in Wenden and Rubin, 1987).
1.1.1. Definition of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy has been defined in different ways by different researchers
and theorists in different contexts.
According to Holec (1981:3), one of the earliest advocates of autonomy in
language teaching has defined it as “the ability to take care of one‟s own learning”.
In language education, however, the word has been used in at least five different
ways: (a) for situations in which learners study entirely on their own; (b) for a set of
skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning; (c) for an inborn
capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; (d) for the exercise of

learners‟ responsibility for their own learning; (e) for the right of learners to
determine the direction of their own learning (Benson &Voller, 1997).
According to Berge (1995, cited in Hsu, 2005) the definition of learner
autonomy can be understood as the notion of being ready to act independently and
to cooperate with others as a socially responsible.
Later, Little (2003, quoted in Sert, 2006) points out that “the practice of learner
autonomy requires insight, a positive attitude, a capacity for reflection, and a
readiness to be proactive in self-management and in interaction with others”.

4


As mentioned above, there have been many different definitions of learner
autonomy. Holec‟s definition is chosen as the basic of this study. However, because
the purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between the use of VLSs
and learner autonomy, the operational definition is used based on Holec‟s
definition, “learner autonomy is the learner ability to take responsibility for their
own learning; study entirely on their own; acquire the learning strategies; hold
positive attitude; be self-reliant; and be ready in interaction with others”.
1.1.2. Characteristics of autonomous language learners
This section discusses some proposals of scholars on characteristics of
autonomous language learners.
Holec (cited in Hsu, 2005) stated that to be an autonomous learner is to be the
manager of his or her own learning processes. This is further developed by Nunan
(1997:193) as the ability “to hold the responsibility for all the decisions concerning
all aspects of this learning, i.e.: determining the objectives; defining the contents
and progressions; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the
procedure of acquisition properly speaking; and evaluating what has been
acquired”. Thus, in Holec‟s viewpoint, autonomous learners are the ones who have
the ability to determine the goals, contents and progressions; choose and use

methods and techniques to achieve those goals, contents and progressions; choose
and use methods and techniques to achieve those objectives; and assess what has
been acquired.
Additionally, Littlewood (1997) mentioned that motivation and confidence
constitute willingness, whereas knowledge and skills are the bases for ability and
autonomy is possible only to the extent that students possess both the willingness
and the ability to act independently. More specifically, students‟ willingness to act
independently depends on the level of their knowledge and skills.
From above discussion, there are the similar ideas about the features of
autonomous language learners among them. The following features outlined in the
table below illustrated clearly the comparison between learners who can be defined
as autonomous and dependent learners.
5


Table 1.1: Dependent and Autonomous learners
Dependent learners

Autonomous learners

1. rely heavily on teachers

1. are self-reliant

2. cannot make decisions about their 2. can make informed decisions about their
learning

learning

3. do not know their own strengths and 3. are aware of their strengths and

weaknesses

weaknesses

4. do not connect classroom learning with 4. are able to transfer classroom learning
the real world
with the real world
5. think that the teacher is wholly 5. take responsible for their own learning
responsible for their learning
6. do not possess metacognitive and 6. possess metacognitive and metalinguistic
metalinguistic awareness
awareness
7. are not able to plan their learning

7. plan their learning and set goals

8. need extrinsic motivators such as 8. are intrinsically motivated by making
grades or rewards
progress
9. do not reflect on how well they are 9. often reflect on the learning process and
learning and the reasons
their own progress
10. are not able to assess their learning

10. possess the ability to self-access

(Adapted from Mynard and Sorflaten (2003), cited in Köse, 2006)
These key characteristics noted above on the right hand are likely features for
the author‟s teaching context. That is why they will be used as criteria to measure
levels of students‟ autonomy as well as encourage them to become totally

autonomous language learners or truly independent language learners in this thesis.
As can be seen Table 1.1, the features of dependent learners are absolutely
contrasted with those of autonomous ones. However, no learner can be said to be
completely autonomous or completely dependent. Therefore, we can portray learner
autonomy across a continuum. At one end of the continuum, we have dependent
learners who do not have the opportunity to develop learner independence. On the
other end we have the learners who have all the characteristics needed for
autonomy. Researchers found that most of the students are somewhere between the
continuum. Learners place themselves within the continuum according to the
6


studies they seek (Benson and Voller, 1997; Sinclair, 2000, cited in Köse, 2006).
Nevertheless, to get a better insight into learner autonomy, factors affecting learner
autonomy from previous studies will be addressed in the next section.
1.1.3. Factors affecting learner autonomy
Previous researchers on factors affecting learner autonomy should be reviewed
because of the purpose of the study. There are studies on the factors influencing
learner autonomy such as teachers, learner-centered approach and self-access
resource centers, motivation and attitude, society and education, previous learning,
learner belief and learning strategies.
With the reference to the teacher‟s role, Little (1995), Tort- Moloney (1997),
McGrath (2000), and Smith (2000) also provided evidence that teachers who
themselves were not autonomous language teachers may have a negative influence
on the development of autonomy in their students (reviewed in Sert, 2006).
In the research on building language learning environments to help technology
university students develop English independent learning, Hsu (2005) emphasized
the role of teachers. As for the researcher, learner autonomy or learner
independence does not mean the teacher become redundant. On the contrary,
teachers play a key role in creating environment to facilitate and motivate learners

to take responsibility for their learning, develop good habits, and become
independent learners.
Beside, the main considerations of learner-centered language curricular which
influence language learning autonomy were proposed by Brindley (1990), Coleman
(1988), the Council of Europe (2001), Hutchison and Waters (1988), Munby (1991),
Nunan (1989, 1990), and Wilkins (1976) (reviewed in Sert, 2006). In the same
context, Tircles (n.d) showed that a foreign language course designed with a
learner-centered focus not only helps learners increase their competence in the use
of language but also allows them to develop some strategies on learning how to
learn. This, in effect, promotes the development of learner autonomy and
encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning and to become
independent learners, the two important requirements of university education.
7


Besides, in his research Gates (2000) found that the social aspects of self-access
learning may play an important role in developing self-directed learning and oral
skills than previously considered.
Furthermore, Conttia (2007) conducted a research on the influence of learner
motivation on developing autonomous learning which indicated that learner
motivation and learner autonomy are intertwined in a web of cognitive,
psychological and social practices which are dynamic and socially-constructed.
Additionally, there are also studies on learner autonomy that could be
influenced by society and education. Littlewood (2000, reviewed in Sert, 2006)
concluded in his research that passive classroom behaviors of the Asian students
rely on the educational contexts provided for them, rather than of any inherent
disposition of the students themselves. Researchers, Hodden and Usuki (1999,
reviewed in Sert, 2006) concluded that it was not the learners who were innately
passive, but it was the educational system that created this environment which
discouraged learner autonomy.

In plus, Ming and Alias (2007) conducted a study on the readiness for
autonomy and compared the learning characteristics from Malaysian ESL
undergraduates of three republic universities, and they found that the learners here
may have a capacity to be autonomous, but this quality was not revealed probably
because of the influence of socio-cultural factors. Therefore, they proposed that in
interpreting autonomy in different context, socio-cultural factors should also be
taken into consideration.
In addition, learner autonomy could be influenced by previous learning. Other
descriptive studies in the Turkish context provide clues about how learner autonomy
could be influenced by previous learning experiences (Cabolat, 1997; Kekekci,
1995; Palfreyman, 2001…). Take for example, the majority of the university level
students lacked necessary critical thinking and reflection skills to cope with the
requirements of academic life, such as skills of how to plan, conduct and evaluate
research (Karasar, 1984; Buyukozturk, 1996; Karakul, 1996; Buyukozturk, 1999;
Koklu and Buyukozturk, 1999, reveiwed in Sert, 2006).
8


Last but not least, learner belief is also a factor affecting learner autonomy.
Carter (1999) examined the data elicited by the BALLI (Beliefs about Language
Learning Inventory) questionnaire, looked at the beliefs held by students and
discussed the validity of these beliefs and how they were likely to facilitate or
hinder the shift to a more autonomous mode of language learning. Then Carter
found that the presence of these beliefs needed to be understood and analyzed
carefully if these learners were to be helped to achieve their full potential as
advanced foreign language learner.
In short, there are many factors impacting learner autonomy; yet, Vera, Arias
and Buitrago (n.d) show that one of the key factors to encouraging students‟
autonomy is the concept of learning strategies which can be defined as steps used
by learners to foster their own learning. They help them work on their own with the

help of the teacher who becomes a facilitator of the process. In addition, they are
valuable tools for both teachers and students to maximize and facilitate the language
learning process. The point is emphasized by Knowles (1976, cited in Wenden,
1987:9) that “learning is lifelong process”, so learners need “to acquire the skills of
self-directed learning”. Furthermore, Wenden (1985, cited in Brown & Douglas,
1994:124) was among the first to assert that “learner strategies are the key to learner
autonomy” and “one of the most important goals of language training should be the
facilitating of that autonomy…” She further underlined that “our effort to teach
students some technical know-how about to tackle a language is well advised”
(p.125). Therefore, it is likely that one of the most influential factors affecting
learner autonomy is learning strategies. The important issues of language learning
strategies and vocabulary learning strategies will be addressed in the following
section.
1.2. Language learning strategies (LLSs)
This section aims to provide a variety of terminological definitions, and
classification systems of LLSs proposed by different authors.

9


1.2.1. Definition of Language learning strategies (LLSs)
Wenden (1991) defined LLSs as “specific mental steps or operations learners
implement to learn” (p.63). This is also “one type of learner training content which
should be included in plans to promote learner autonomy” (p.18). Wenden specified
metacognitive function and notably points out the notion of promoting learner
autonomy.
Recently, Oxford (2001:166, cited in Miller, 2005) gave an expanded definition
asserting that learning strategies are “operations employed by the learner to aid the
acquisition, storage, retrieval and use of information, specific actions taken by the
learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more

effective and more transferable to new situations”.
Obviously, different scholars have different definitions of learning strategies.
Nevertheless, their common ground seems to be agreement that learning strategies
entail action or thought by the learner to facilitate his/her own language learning. In
reviewing the definitions of LLSs, Miller (2005) showed that through the years the
emphasis has shifted from merely developing linguistic competence in the target
language toward a greater emphasis on developing learner self-directedness. As for
Brown (2005), learning strategies have been defined as:
- Mental and/or communicative processes;
- Subconscious or conscious action and techniques for learning: they assist
with strong information, forming language rules and understanding; making
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, and more transferable to new
situations;
- Applicable to both simple and complex tasks;
- Teachable; and
- Helpful in developing “appropriate attitudes” towards the learning situation,
and increasing learner independence and autonomy.
In this study, Brown‟s definition of learning strategies is used because of its
suitability for the purpose of the study.

10


1.2.2. Definition of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs)
VLSs can be considered a subset of general LLSs in second acquisition.
O'Malley and Chamot (1990:1) defined learning strategies as “the special thoughts
or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new
information”. This very broad definition is echoed by Schmitt in defining VLSs.
Schmitt (1997:203) said learning is “the process by which information is obtained,
stored, retrieved and used... therefore VLSs could be any which affect this broadly

defined process”.
Brown and Payne (1994) identified five steps in the process of learning
vocabulary in a foreign language: (a) having sources for encountering new words,
(b) getting a clear image, either visual or auditory or both, of the forms of the new
words, (c) learning the meaning of the words, (d) making a strong memory
connection between the forms and the meanings of the words, and (e) using the
words. Consequently, all vocabulary learning strategies, to a greater or lesser extent,
should be related to these five steps (Fan, 2003: 223).
1.2.3. Classification of vocabulary learning strategies
Among several taxonomies of VLSs available in the literature, the one proposed
by Schmitt (1997) is highly appreciated because of its suitability for the study; thus,
the present study is conducted in the light of Schmitt‟s comprehensive taxonomy.
The classification in Schmitt‟s study was based on the two dimensions
developed by Oxford (1990) and Nation (1990). The first dimension was adopted
from Oxford systems of learning strategies which contain six groups: social,
memory, cognitive, metacognitive, affective and compensation. Social strategies
(SOC) use interaction with other people to improve language learning. Memory
strategies (MEM) relate new material to existing knowledge. Cognitive strategies
(COG) exhibit the common function of manipulation or transformation of the target
language by the learners. Metacognitive strategies (MET) involve in a conscious
overview of the learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring,
or evaluating the best ways to study. Affective strategies exhibit how to manage
one‟s emotions in language learning. Compensation strategies deal with different
11


ways of compensating for missing knowledge. However, Schmitt (1997) only
adopted four strategy groups: Social, Memory, Cognitive and Metacognitive.
Besides, he added a new category- Determination Strategies (DET) to account for
situations when an individual discovered a new word meaning without resource to

another person‟s expertise. The second dimension is the distinction between initial
discovery of word meanings and remembering words that divide strategies into
discovery and consolidation groups respectively (Nation, 1990). Taken together,
Schmitt‟s taxonomy contains 58 individual strategies characterized by the
discovery-consolidation division and into five groups, namely social, memory,
cognitive, metacognitive and determination. Appendix 1 presented Schmitt‟s final
version of taxonomy of VLSs.
1.3. The effect of learner autonomy and language learning strategies on
successful language learning
1.3.1. The effect of learner autonomy on successful language learning
More and more research has been done on learner autonomy and independence
(Holec, 1981; Benson, 2000) and its importance to a successful learning process.
Borrowed from the field of language learning is the notion that learner autonomy is
central to the learning process and crucial to an effective language learning
experience (Benson, 2000; Esch, 1994; McCall, 1992; Sheerin, 1989, 1997;
Sturtridge, 1997, reviewed in Reynard, 2006). Furthermore, learner autonomy can
make learning successful. Ellis and Sinclair (1989:1, cited in Benson and Voller,
1997:174) tell us that “helping learners take on more responsibility for their own
learning can be beneficial” because: (1) learning can be more effective when
learners take control for their own learning because they learn what they are ready
to learn; (2) those learners who are responsible for their own learning can carry on
learning outside the classroom; (3) learners who know about learning strategies can
transfer learning strategies to other subjects.
Next, learner autonomy can help unsuccessful learners become successful. This
has been demonstrated in Louis and Pereira‟s study (2003) which was conducted
among remedial EFL students in an EST (English for Science and Technology)
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reading course at the Simon Bolivia University in Caracas, Venezuela. Most of

them have failed their regular courses and many suffer from low self-esteem. Thanks to
autonomous learning strategies, the students here became more confident and studied
better.
More recently, Dafie (2007) demonstrates that students‟ language proficiency
has been shown to be influenced by learner autonomy. The researcher investigated
the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency in a sample of
non-English majors in a teacher college in China. The study indicated that the
students‟ English proficiency was significantly and positively related to their learner
autonomy, and there are no significant differences among the students‟ learner
autonomy when their English proficiency is not significantly different. But there are
significant differences among the students‟ learner autonomy when their English
proficiency is significant different.
To sum up, the studies mentioned above more or less related to the impact of
learner autonomy on making successful learning. Although these studies were
conducted in different contexts together with different purposes, what they have in
common is that they tried to find out the best way to develop learner autonomy as
well as learner language learning.
Based on these findings, it can be concluded that learner autonomy has a
tremendous effect on students‟ language proficiency and language learning.
Another crucial factor to foster language learning is LLSs. This will be focused on
in the next section.
1.3.2. The effect of learning strategies on successful and autonomous language
learning
Learning strategies affect the success of language learning positively because
“they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for
developing communicative competence. According to Oxford (1990:1) “appropriate
language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater selfconfidence”. Since the mid-1970s, close attention has been given to the role of
strategies in second language learning (Anderson, 1991; Cohen, 1990, 1998;
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Hosenfeld, 1979; Macaro, 2001; Naiman, Flohlich & Todesco, 1975; O‟Malley &
Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990, 1993, 2002; Rubin, 1975; Sterm, 1975; Wenden,
1991, 2002; Wong-Fillmore, 1979). One consistent finding of this research has been
that learners actively use strategies to accomplish their language learning goals
(reviewed in Anderson, 2003). In general, it is agreed that the use of language
learning strategies is positively related to language proficiency. It appears that good
language learners orchestrate and combine their use of particular types of strategies
in effective ways (Chamot & Kupper, 1989; O‟Malley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford,
1993, reviewed in Shmais, 2003).
Learning strategies have a beneficial effect on developing learner autonomy.
Students who use effective strategies are better able to work outside the classroom
by themselves, once the teacher is not around to direct them (Rubin, 1987:17). In
agreement with Rubin, Cook (1991:81) says that “the students must be encouraged
to develop independence inside and outside the classroom”, and he also pointed out
that “partly this can be achieved through „learning training‟- equipping the students
with the means to guide themselves by explaining strategies to them. The idea of
learner training shades over into self-directed learning, in which the students take on
responsibility for their learning”. That is why the role of language learning strategy
instruction in promoting learner autonomy is widely recognized (Wenden, 1991;
Little, 1994; Cohen, 1998, quoted in Harris, 2003). And “learner training then can
lead to more affective classroom learning, self-access learning, and independent learning
at home” (Hedge, 2000:86). Thus, learning strategies affect greatly on autonomous
learning.
As discussed above, on the theoretical foundation, LLSs are considered as one
of the key factors affecting learner autonomy and helpful in increasing learner
autonomy, and learner autonomy has a tremendous impact on successful learning.
On the practical foundation, some researches have pointed out that there is a
relationship between language proficiency and learner autonomy. However, the
relationship between LLSs, especially VLSs and learner autonomy has not been

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addressed. Therefore, there is a pressing need for the research on the relationship
between VLSs and learner autonomy.
1.4. Summary
This chapter has reviewed related theories on two major issues, learner
autonomy, and LLSs in general and VLSs in particular. Concerning the leaner
autonomy, definitions of learner autonomy as well as characteristics of autonomous
language learners proposed by different researchers have been described and
analyzed. In plus, the definition of LLSs, VLSs and classification of LLSs has been
also presented. Moreover, factors affecting learner autonomy, the effect of learner
autonomy on effective learning and the effect of LLSs on successful and
autonomous learning from previous studies were also reviewed in this chapter. All
of these serve as a basic for an investigation into the relationship between students‟
use of VLSs and the learner autonomy in this research. This will be further
presented in the next chapters.

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CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the discussion of the research design, respondents of the
study, data gathering instrument, statistical treatment of data in accordance with the
specific problem of the study.
2.1. Research questions and descriptions of variables
2.1.1. Research questions
To achieve the aim of the study, three research questions are addressed:
 Which VLSs are frequently used by TNUT first year students?

 How autonomous are the students?
 What is the relationship between the students‟ use of VLSs and the
learner autonomy?
2.1.2 Descriptions of variables
Independent variable: in this study, the independent variable is the students‟ use
of VLSs.
Dependent variable: as mentioned above, the students‟ use of VLSs probably
affects their learner autonomy. Therefore, the level of learner autonomy is defined
as the dependent variable in the study.
2.2. Participants
The participants of the survey include 110 first year students from three
different classes at Thainguyen University of Technology (TNUT). The students
here are non-English majors, among which 29 were female and 81 are male. Their
average ages are 19 years old and they have studied English for seven years from
school to secondary school at university (Appendix 6, question 8). They have learnt
eight modules (from module 0 to module 7) of the New-Cutting Edge- Elementary
in the first semester of the first year. Now they have been learning the second eight
modules (from module 8 to module 15) of the same book in the second semester of
the first year. Their present objective in learning English is to pass the final exams
first, then, study English for Specific Purposes in their second year at university.

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Table 2.1: Informants’ background information of the survey
Demographic factors
Number
Sex
Age
Already learnt English before

Time English learning length

Participants
110
81 male, 29 female
Mean= 19.54 years
Yes= 100%
Mean= 7.44 years

2.3. Data collection instruments
In order to seek the answers to the research questions, the following data
collection instruments are employed in this study.
Questionnaires are used to collect data to find out the respondents‟ background
and answer the first research question exploring VLSs frequently used by TNUT
first year students.
Autonomous learner checklist is used to collect data to answer the second
research question measuring how autonomous they are.
The collected data from the questionnaires and autonomous leaner checklist are
computed and analyzed to answer the third questions exploring the relationship
between the students‟ use of VLSs and the learner autonomy?”
2.3.1. Questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part is about the respondent‟s
background. It consists of 12 questions. Questions 1 and 2 are used to get
information about the students‟ name, age and gender. Question 3 is designed to
find out to what extent the students are motivated in learning English. Questions 4-8
elicit information about the participants‟ English learning background. Questions 912 explore the learners‟ awareness and experience of the use of vocabulary learning
strategies to improve their language learning. The second part is based on Schmitt‟s
taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies (1997) (Appendix 1). Only 24 strategies
were chosen for designing the second part of the questionnaire because of the
teaching and learning English context at TNUT and the small scope of the thesis.

By this way, 24 vocabulary learning strategies (Appendix 2) are conducted in the
form of five point Likert rating scales are follows:

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1= Never or almost never true
2= Occasionally true
3= Sometimes true
4= Usually true
5= Always or always almost true
2.3.2. Autonomous learner checklist
According to Ellis (1999) and Sinclair (1999) (cited in Köse, 2006), in order to
make informed decisions about learners‟ learning, learners need to have developed
an awareness of at least four important areas of metacognition:
 Learner awareness referring to learners being aware of themselves as
learners mainly in term of attitudes, belief, motivation, needs and learning
styles.
 Subject matter awareness of the target language refers to learner awareness
of the language as a system.
 Learning process awareness refers to self-assessment, goal setting,
monitoring progress, evaluating activities and organizing time and resources.
 Social awareness refers to learner awareness of the presence of others in the
classroom and their willingness to cooperate through interaction and
collaboration.
Based on the theoretical background noted above as well as the characteristics of
autonomous learner discussed in Table 1.1, the autonomous learner checklist items
were designed to collect data and to find out how autonomous students were. This is
presented in Appendix 3. The followings are the main categories and what are
aimed to find under the heading in this study.

1. Learner awareness
 I am confident that I can learn
 I want to find out for myself what I have to do to learn better
 I know why I am learning
 I know how I am learning
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