Nghiên cứu so sánh ảnh hưởng của đường hướng dạy học trên cơ sở giao nhiệm vụ và phương pháp dạy học truyền thống đối với việc dạy ngữ pháp ở trường trung học p

Vietnam nation university, hanoi
college of foreign languages
DEPARTMENT OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES




Le Thi Phuong Thao





a comparative study of the effect of a task-based
teaching and traditional method to grammar
instruction at Vietnamese upper secondary schools
an experimental research

nghiên cứu so sánh ảnh h-ởng của đ-ờng h-ớng dạy học trên cơ sở
giao nhiệm vụ và ph-ơng pháp dạy học truyền thống đối với việc dạy
ngữ pháp ở tr-ờng trung học phổ thông: nghiên cứu thực nghiệm

Minor Thesis





Field: English Methodology

Code: 601410





Hanoi- 2009
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements i
Abstract ii
Table of contents iii
List of Abbreviations vi
List of tables and graphs vii
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1. Rationale of the study 1
1.2. Hypotheses 2
1.2.1. The Null Hypothesis (Ho) 2
1.2.2. The Alternative Hypothesis (H1) 3
1.3. Purpose of the study 3
1.4. Important of the study 3
1.5. The setting and background 3
1.6. Definition of terminology 4
1.7. Design of the study 4
Chapter 2: Literature Review 6
2.1. The role of grammar in English language teaching 6
2.1.1. Arguments against grammar teaching 6
2.1.2. Research supporting grammar teaching 6

2.2. Grammar teaching as Process or as Product 7
2.2.1. The process of language learning 8
2.2.2. Teaching grammar as product 9
2.2.3. Teaching grammar as process 9
2.3. Grammar and methods of language teaching 12
2.3.1. Grammar-Translation Method 12
2.3.1.1. Characteristics of Grammar-Translation Method 12
2.3.1.2. Advantages of Grammar-Translation Method 13
2.3.1.3. Drawbacks of Grammar-Translation Method 14
2.3.2. Task-based approach to grammar teaching 14
2.3.2.1. Definition of "Task" and types of tasks in language teaching
and learning 15
2.3.2.2. Definitions and features of task-based teaching approach 16
iv

2.3.2.3. The implementation of task-based approach 17
2.3.2.4. Integration of the task-based teaching approach into
grammar teaching 19
2.3.2.5. Advantages of task-based approach 21
2.3.2.6. Possible constraints of task-based approach 22
2.4. Conclusion 23
Chapter 3: Research methodology 24
3.1. Methodology 24
3.1.1. Subjects 24
3.1.2. Variables and constants 24
3.2. Research instruments 24
3.3. Data collection 25
3.4. Achievement Tests 25
3.4.1. Pre-test 25
3.4.2. Post-test 25

3.4.3. Other data source 26
3.5. Hypotheses testing instrument 26
Chapter 4: Data analysis and discussions 27
4.1. Pre-test results 27
4.1.1. Descriptive group statistics of the pre-test result 27
4.1.2. Independent samples T-test of the pre-test result 28
4.2. Post-test results 29
4.2.1. Analysis of overall mean performance 29
4.2.2. Descriptive group statistics of the post-test result 30
4.2.3. Independent samples T-test of the post-test result 31
4.3. Hypothesis testing 31
4.4. Classroom observation report 32
Chapter 5: summary, conclusion and Recommendations 39
5.1. Summary of the findings 39
5.2. Conclusions 40
5.3. Recommendations 41
5.4. Limitations of the study 42
5.5. Suggestions for further study 42
References 43
v

Appendices I
Appendix I: Lesson plans for the study group I
Appendix II: Pre-test XI
Appendix III: Post-test XIV
Appendix IV: Raw data of the study group and the control group on the pre-test and post-test
results XVIII

vii
List of tables

Table 1: Willis's model for task-based instruction 18
Table 2: Descriptive Group Statistics of the Pre-test 27
Table 3: Independent Samples T-test of the Pre-test 28
Table 4: Descriptive Group Statistics of the Post-test 30
Table 5: Independent Samples T-test of the Post-test 31

List of graphs

Graph 1: Frequency distribution of scores of the Control class 29
Graph 2: Frequency distribution of scores of the Study class 29

vi
List of Abbreviations

CLT : Communicative Language Teaching
EFL : English as a Foreign Language
GTM : Grammar-Translation Method
L2 : Second Language
SL : Second Language
TB : Task-based
TBA : Task-based Approach
TBI : Task-based Instruction


1

Chapter 1: Introduction

One of the most important elements necessary to acquire a language is grammar.

Not only in terms of the first language, but also of the second language, grammar is of
primary importance for speakers to convey their messages. Vietnamese students start to
study English at school, mainly focuses on learning grammar. The Grammar-Translation
Method (GTM) has been widely employed in Vietnam. The GTM focuses on, in particular,
the memorization of grammatical features, vocabulary and direct translations of text into
the mother tongue. Yet, since the 1970s, the orthodoxy in pedagogies of English education
and research in applied linguistics has shifted away from the GTM toward Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT), because the method no longer fit the demands of learners to
use language as a tool of communication (Howatt, 1984). Littlewood (1981: 1) states his
views of the communicative language teaching approach, "One of the most characteristic
features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to
functional as well as structural aspects of language, combining these into a more fully
communicative view."
With the application of the GTM in teaching grammar, students learn only the
formal properties of the language (verb conjugation, rules of syntax, vocabulary lists), but
they cannot exchange information, express their ideas or feelings, or construct and control
problem solving. Therefore, the Task-Based Approach (TBA) is a suitable approach to
teach English to Vietnamese students today because task-based teaching is an important
way of CLT. Although the TBA is still new to teachers and students in Vietnam, it is a
really effective way to improve students' communicative abilities. However, the reality is
that there is a long-standing tradition in Vietnam for teachers to teach English using the
GTM. This method has been widely used in almost all Vietnamese schools. With an urgent
need for English in communication, the suitable approach should be the TBA.
This chapter presents the rationale, the hypotheses, the purpose of this study, the
importance of the study, definition of terminology, the setting and background, and the
design of the study.

1.1. Rationale
Grammar teaching has played an important role in language learning and
acquisition. No-grammar teaching will lead to the product of clumsy and inappropriate

2

foreign languages. It is a fact that grammar teaching is essential for language teaching.
According to Wood (1995), "nobody can doubt that a good knowledge of the grammatical
system is essential to master a foreign language and it is also one of the most important
parts of communicative competence."; therefore, we can see that grammar is a framework
without which language cannot be structured and a message cannot be conveyed smoothly
and fluently. However, grammar teaching is still one of the most controversial and least
understood aspects of foreign language teaching although it has been a central aspect of
foreign language teaching.
In Vietnam, the teaching of grammar is an area of controversy and debate. In the
grammar teaching classroom, some teachers pay excessive attention to the importance of
teaching rules and grammatical structures. However, there are not many grammar rules that
can be clearly formulated and easily taught or learned. Some rules are easy to formulate
and some are relatively difficult. Others are too abstract to be described and cannot be
applied mechanically. These rules are not always governed by the immediate, linguistic
environment and thus are difficult to practice in simple contexts. So, the students gradually
become uninterested in learning English. They negatively accept, process and store the
grammar knowledge. They are successful in mastering only a set of structure forms which
are useless in improving their integrative communicative competence. Some other teachers
excessively pursue the communication functions, emphasize the notional-function, and
totally reject grammar instruction. As a result, students are successful but grammatically
inaccurate communicators. It is not surprising that a Vietnamese student cannot express
himself fluently and accurately after spending more than ten years in learning English.
The reason I choose this topic is related to my personal profession. From my
observation and professional experience as an upper secondary school teacher of English, I
have realized that different teachers have different attitudes and approaches to grammar in
the classroom. Although the design of English textbook is task-based, many teachers of

English apply the traditional method to teach grammar. There are teachers who view
grammar teaching as unnecessary while the others who are obsessed by it. I am always
haunted by the question which method to deal with grammar more effectively in the
secondary school classroom. For several years, I have pursued the answer to this question.
It is my belief that the answer would be of great help to myself as well as to my colleagues.
I plan to conduct an experimental study so as to check whether or not teaching grammar


3

through task-based approach is effective. Accordingly the following hypotheses are
formulated.

1.2. Hypotheses
1.2.1. The Null Hypothesis (Ho)
There will not be significant difference between the effectiveness of grammar-
translation method of grammar teaching and the effectiveness of grammar teaching
through task-based approach.

1.2.2. The Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
There will be significant difference between the effectiveness of grammar-
translation method of grammar teaching and the effectiveness of grammar teaching
through task-based approach.

1.3. Purpose of the Study
This experimental study is to check whether or not teaching grammar through task-
based approach is more effective and functional than grammar-translation method that is
still being used as the dominant method of grammar teaching in many Vietnamese high
schools.

1.4. Importance of the Study
This study is important in that:
• It provides the opportunity for English language teachers to look back and
evaluate the effectiveness of the methods and techniques they employ for grammar
teaching, and to compare with the integrated approach of grammar teaching.
• It serves as a threshold on which other researchers can conduct studies in a similar
area with a greater magnitude for reliable and comprehensive research finding.
• It may be used as an instance for the concerned bodies to deal with the prevailing
problems in connection with the method that teachers employ in the teaching of grammar,
and strive for a possible solution.

1.5. The setting and background
Chau Phong upper secondary school is located in Phuc Yen Town, Vinh Phuc
Province. English learning is very popular for everybody here because there are some
colleges and a university nearby. Therefore, students in the town are motivated to learn


4

English. To be more exact, their purpose to learn English is to have opportunities in order
to enter colleges or universities. All teachers of English of Chau Phong upper secondary
school graduated from The College of Foreign Languages, Vietnam National University
(CFL-VNU) or Hanoi University. They all have good qualifications. Besides, they are very
enthusiastic in their teaching.
English is taught as a curriculum subject. It is compulsory and students have to pass
the national examination by the end of grade 12. Both the textbooks and syllabuses for
English are prescribed by the Ministry of Education and Training, and students have four
45-minute lessons of English a week. Most students are at pre-intermediate level of
English, and some students are still at elementary level.

1.6. Definition of terminology
The terms which are commonly used in this thesis are grammar teaching, grammar
instruction, grammar-translation method, and task-based approach. Although there may
be some connotational meaning between grammar teaching and grammar instruction,
grammar instruction is more preferred in the literature. In this thesis, I use both
interchangeably. The approach means the theory about nature of grammar and how
grammar should be taught accordingly.

1.7. Design of the study
The thesis contains five chapters.
Chapter One, the introduction, provides an overview of the study with specific
reference to the rationale, the purpose, the hypotheses, the importance of the study, the
setting and background of the study, and the design of the study.
Chapter Two is aimed at exploring the theoretical background for the thesis. The
chapter will focus on three main points: the role of grammar, grammar teaching as product
or as process, and grammar teaching method (grammar-translation method and task-based
approach).
In Chapter Three, the methodology underlying the research is presented. This
chapter presents the background information of the subjects of the study, the instruments
used to collect the data, and the procedure for data collection.
Chapter Four is devoted to a detailed description of data analysis and a thorough
discussion of the findings of the study. In this chapter, some explanations and
interpretations of the findings are explored.


5

In Chapter Five, the conclusion of the thesis, presents the summary of the findings
and some pedagogical suggestions, which are proposed for the teachers teaching grammar
in the upper secondary school. Those suggestions are related to teaching techniques and

grammar tasks that are relevant and applicable to the teaching of grammar for the upper
secondary school students. The limitations of the study and some recommendations for
further research are also discussed in that chapter.
The References are the last part of the study, following the Appendices.

6

Chapter 2: Literature review

2.1. The role of grammar in English language teaching
With the rise of communicative methodology in the late 1970s, the role of grammar
instruction in language learning was downplayed, and it was even suggested that teaching
grammar was not only unhelpful but it might actually be detrimental. However, recent
research has demonstrated the need for formal instruction for learners to attain high levels
of accuracy. This has led to resurgence of grammar teaching, and its role in language
acquisition has become the focus of much current investigation.
Continuing in the tradition of more than 2000 years of debate regarding whether
grammar should be a primary focus of language instruction, should be eliminated entirely,
or should be subordinated to meaning-focused use of the target language, the need for
grammar instruction is once again attracting the attention of language acquisition
researchers and teachers. Below will be a brief review of arguments against and in support
of grammar teaching before examining the approaches to grammar instruction.

2.1.1. Arguments against Grammar Teaching
Much grammar research over the past few decades has concentrated on determining
whether grammar should be taught at all. This focus has been motivated in part by debates
in the field of cognitive psychology over the role of explicit versus implicit language
learning and whether such learning occurs through conscious manipulation of information
or primarily through unconscious processes when people are exposed to language input
(N.Ellis, 1994; Reber, 1967). Theoretically, the debate was represented by Krashen's
(1981) distinction between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of language. It
was claimed that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not learned
through formal instruction. It was therefore believed that formal grammar lessons would

develop only declarative knowledge of grammar structures, not the procedural ability to
use forms correctly, and that there was no interface between these two types of knowledge
since they exist as different systems in the brain (R. Ellis, 2001, 2002a).

2.1.2. Research Supporting Grammar Teaching
In recent years, some researchers hold new perspectives towards grammar
instruction. They have argued, theoretically and empirically, that "grammar teaching does
aid L2 acquisition" (Ellis, 1992). As early as in 1988, Long thinks that formal grammar


7

teaching helps learners to acquire L2 more rapidly and get higher achievement (cited in
Ellis, 1999a). Celce-Murcia also concludes that "some focus on form may well be
necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy as well as fluency while grammarless
approach can lead to the development of a broken, ungrammatical pidginized form of the
target language beyond which students rarely progress" (1991). Nassaji & Fotos (2004)
summarized four reasons:
(1) Some researchers, such as Schmidt (1990), proved that "noticing" is one of the
necessities in language learning, compared with the theory that language is not learned
consciously, but acquire unconsciously.
(2) Some researchers, such as Pienemann (1984), have found that though the
sequence of acquisition in grammar cannot be changed, grammar instruction can accelerate
the process of learning some structures.
(3) Due to the fact that communicative language teaching has not produced ideal
outcomes in its practice, which lays emphasis on the meaningful communication whereas
ignores the structural forms of language completely, Swain (1985) and his colleagues
concluded that the most effective way to improve the ability of using grammar accurately
is to use formal instruction after they did the research on "immersion programme" to some
English learners, and found that though they had been exposed to considerable corpus, they

still could not use some structural forms correctly.
(4) During the last 20 years, considerable empirical classroom teaching research
has demonstrated that classroom grammar instruction has great effect on second language
acquisition. For example, Doughty (1991), in her empirical study of SL relativization,
illustrated that "second language instruction does make a difference."
Thus, based on the up to date research, Ellis concludes that though it does not
enable learners to change the natural order of acquisition, grammar instruction has an
effect in helping learners to make more rapid progress along it, and has lasting effect when
it is indeed effective on learners (2002).

2.2. Grammar teaching as product or as process
According to Rod Bastone (1994), grammar is multi-dimensional: grammar is a
formal mechanism, a functional system from signaling meanings, or a dynamic resource
which both users and learners call on in different ways at different times.


8

The teaching of grammar has been the focus of language teachers and learners for
many years. The main goal of grammar teaching is to enable learners to achieve linguistic
competence; learners use grammar as a tool or resource for comprehension, and creation of
oral and written discourse efficiently, effectively, and appropriately depending on the
situation. There are many approaches of grammar teaching. A major argument is to teach
grammar as product or as process.
Teaching grammar as product can help to give learners a clear and explicit
framework about the language; learners notice and structure the language. But teaching
grammar may not help the learner to use the language.
Process teaching emphasizes the use of language by the learner. It aims at
developing the skills and strategies and constructing tasks for learners to use to
communicate more effectively in the real discourse process. The significance of process

teaching is that it helps the learner to proceduralize the language and realize the stage of
automaticity of the language.

2.2.1. The process of language learning
There are several stages in the learning process: noticing and re-noticing,
structuring and automatizing. In the first stage of noticing and structuring, learners notice
the form of the language and sort out the rules of how the language is structured through
plenty of input. Then they may begin to sort out how grammatical forms relate their
associated meanings through renoticing and restructuring. Learners may begin to structure
for themselves the complexities and irregularities of the language systems. Learners then
can build up a good knowledge about grammar and get familiar with the ready-to-use
knowledge called proceduralized knowledge, which encourages them to use the language.
Gradually the language will be accessed more or less automatically and the language
learners will be able to deploy the language without any specific attention (this stage called
automaticity). This process can be roughly shown in the following diagram:

Grammar
Product Process
(knowing) (using)
Noticing structuring renoticing restructuring Automatizing
The process of language learning


9

At the beginning of the learning process, learners focus on the component parts of
the language system (i.e. grammar as product); the later stage of the learning process,
grammar is regarded as an essential element in the process of the language use (i.e. not
only knowing but also using grammar).

2.2.2. Teaching Grammar as Product
Traditionally, the language classroom was a place where learners received
systematic instruction in the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of the language. The
learners were provided with instruction in the grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation of
the language, and were provided with opportunities for practicing the new features of the
language as these were introduced. Teaching grammar as product, as its name implies,
takes a product perspective on grammar, which means that the emphasis of teaching is on
particular grammatical forms and their associated meanings. In this approach, particular
grammatical forms have been targeted by syllabus designers and grammar teaching is
always focusing on these pre-selected grammatical forms. Grammar, therefore, includes
many forms of linguistic knowledge: the sound system (phonology), the system of
meaning (semantics), and the vocabulary of words (lexicon). In addition, there are always
connections between forms and meanings.
When grammar is taught as product, the learners are given a more abstract idea
about the language. Product teaching promotes two key stages in the learning process:
noticing and restructuring. Noticing is the conscious, reportable detection of elements of
the input to which the learner is exposed. It involves selective attention to linguistic
information and potentially creates opportunities for the development of form/function
relationship within the learner. Learners have to act on what they have noticed and put it
into their working hypothesis about how grammar is structured. Restructuring is the
process of amending mental hypotheses about how language is structured (Bastone,
2002:76). Noticing and structuring, when they occur, are rapid and immediately available
to sustain improved performance in the language.

2.2.3. Teaching Grammar as Process
Unlike product teaching, teaching grammar as process aims at helping learners
employ grammar effectively in their own language use; learners are given the opportunity
to be creative with the language and therefore to develop fluency or automaticity.

10

Teaching grammar as process emphasizes language use and helps learners
reorganize their knowledge of language. Therefore, only the knowledge of language
grammatical system is far from enough for us to communicate. We need more than that.
Teaching grammar as process is needed. It engages learners directly in the procedures of
language use in discourse process so that they can achieve the process of self-discovery by
means of consciousness-raising and the self-expression of language use.
In the real on-going process of discourse, learners use the language under great
pressure of not only the knowledge of the language system (systematic knowledge), but
also the knowledge of the world (schematic knowledge). Somehow, the learner has to
mentally organize language into a "user-friendly mode" (Bastone, 1994), so that he/she can
manage this complex of skills and reach a point where language can be deployed without
the need for too much careful attention, engaging what is known as "automatic
processing". Fluency and automaticity are two main focuses of language teaching and
learning. For Brumfit (1984: 56), fluency is to be regarded as natural language use,
whether or not it results in native-speaker-like language comprehension or production.
Automaticity is a stage in which learners can use the language effectively and with a focus
on meaning. Process teaching aims at helping learners to reach the stage of automaticity by
engaging them in language use, so that they may formulate their own ongoing resource
(Bastone, 1994). Learners can proceduralize their knowledge, learning to deploy grammar,
while for the most part, concentrating their attention on meaning.
In process teaching, the most popular approach language teachers employed may be
the task-based approach. Task here means a goal-oriented activity with a clear purpose.
Tasks should involve communicative language use in which the learner's attention is
focused on meaning rather than linguistic structure. Nunan (1989:10) defines the
communicative task as "a piece of classroom work which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their
attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form". Nunan also suggests that
tasks will contain some form of input data, which might be verbal or non-verbal, and an

activity, which in some way, is derived from the input. The tasks will also have (implicitly
or explicitly) a goal and roles for teachers and learners.



11


Goals Teacher's role

Input TASKS Learners' role

Activities Settings
A framework for analyzing communicative tasks
(Adopted from Nunan, 1989:11)
By using tasks in process teaching, learners are put in a meaning-focused context
and are given a chance to elaborate their grammar, so they may achieve the self-discovery
as discourse participants.
There is certainly a gap between product teaching which is very teacher-centered
and process teaching which is highly learner-centered. In existing understandings of
language learners in different cultures and contexts, Vietnamese learners are often typically
viewed as less active, even "passive" and that most language teachers employ the more
traditional approach -teaching grammar as product. We have to admit that it is not an easy
task to adopt a process approach completely without reading with the cultural differences.
The following are some factors that language teachers may need to consider when using
process approaches to teach grammar in Vietnam's context.
(1) The roles of teachers and learners
In process teaching, learners are required to adopt a range of roles which are
relative uncommon to traditional instruction. They are required to be adaptable, creative,
inventive and most of all, independent. Teachers only have partial control to the learners'

activities, which means that learners have to take risks in the language use.
(2) Large size of the class
The number of students in one class in Vietnam is relatively large. Thus, it is more
challenging to develop individual ability of language use, and it is quite difficult for
teachers to ask students to complete tasks in big groups in limited time and space.
(3) Limited awareness of task-based approach
Up to now, teaching grammar as product is still the most popular approach in
Vietnam. Process teaching is still at an experimental stage. A large number of language
teachers and learners do not have a clear idea of what task-based approach is and how it is
deployed in a language class. The teachers still apply the traditional method in their


12

classrooms. However, this method is not very effective in a language class. Therefore,
understanding task-based approach as well as process teaching is an essential stage to
improve the process of language teaching and learning.
Product teaching has been integrated deeply in people's mind and in the real social
discourse. At the same time the significance of process teaching has been recognized in the
field. But language teaching is not just a matter of product teaching or process teaching.
Product teaching has its own place. Without the basic knowledge of language system,
process teaching would face greater difficulties and challenges. But knowing the language
does not mean using the language. So these two approaches can work together in the
process of language teaching and learning.
Task-based approach may be a good choice for teaching grammar as process
because it combines language the real-life communication and aims at helping learners to
develop their spontaneous language use. But not all tasks work well in all contexts. They
may need to be changed differently. Cultural differences in classroom like the roles of
teachers and learners, the size of the class and the concepts towards product and process
teaching require task-based approach to be more flexible and more practical.

Because the teaching of grammar is multi-dimensional (Bastone, 1994), we should
look at language teaching from different perspectives and adopt a flexible teaching
method.

2.3. Grammar and Methods of Language Teaching
2.3.1. Grammar-translation method
The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) was the dominant foreign language
teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s, and a version of it continues to be
widely used in some parts of the world, even today. The GTM method, broadly speaking,
sees foreign language study as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read
literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual development. The basic
approach is to analyze and study the grammar rules of the language, and then to practice
manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from
the mother tongue.
2.3.1.1. Characteristics of Grammar-Translation Method
As Brown (1994) commented, in the GTM, 'languages are not being taught
primarily to learn oral/aural communication but to learn for sake of being "scholarly".
Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979) listed the major characteristics of the GTM as follows:


13

1- classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
2- much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3- long elaborate explanation of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4- grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often
focuses on the form and inflection of words.
5- reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6- little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in
7- often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the

target language into the mother tongue.
8- little or no attention is given to pronunciation.
Exercises of a class using the grammar-translation method are:
• Translation of a literacy passage: Students translate a reading passage from the
target language into their native language.
• Reading comprehension questions: Students answer questions in the target language
based on their understanding of the reading passage.
• Antonym/ Synonym: Students are given one set of words and are asked to find
antonyms in the reading passage.
• Fill-in-the-blanks: Students are given a series of sentences with words missing.
• Deductive application of rule: Grammar rules are presented with examples. Once
students understand a rule, they are asked to apply it to some different examples.
The GTM has a long history, so its advantages and disadvantages have been
demonstrated during the teaching processes.

2.3.1.2. Advantages of Grammar-Translation Method
The following are advantages of the GTM.
First, the GTM is good for language learners to recognize some features of two
languages, and some of the learners study the target language very well by this method.
That's because, the GTM emphasizes the importance of vocabulary and grammar learning.
For example, the students generally show their interest in language structures and linguistic
details when they are learning a language. Therefore, in teaching English to students,
appropriate grammar analysis is essential especially for beginners.
Second, the GTM is good for language learners to cultivate their abilities to study
independently. Because the focus of the GTM is on reading, the learner's reading abilities
can be improved greatly.


14

Third, due to the features of the GTM, teacher's English ability is not very high.
Grammar is taught with extensive explanations with the native language, and only much
later, the production of sentences are through translation from one language to the other,
and it is good for students to understand the content of the text.
Besides advantages, the GTM also has some drawbacks.

2.3.1.3. Drawbacks of Grammar-translation method
Obviously, there are many drawbacks of the GTM. Virtually no class time is
allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences, and even less time is spent on
oral practice (whether productive or reproductive). Students may have difficulties
"relating" to the language, because the classroom experience keeps them from
demonstrating and developing their own potentials. In addition, culture is communicated
through means of reading passages, but there is little direct confrontation with foreign
elements. This method gives students the false idea of what language is and of the
relationship between languages. Language is seen as a collection of words which are
isolated and independent and there must be a corresponding word in the native tongue for
each foreign word he learns. What the biggest defeat of the GTM is that learners are not
enthusiastic about studying target language, because learners feel dull when they just learn
grammar. It seems there is no need for students to master the four skills of English
(listening, speaking, reading and writing). The GTM is the easiest for a teacher to employ.
It does not require a teacher to speak good English.

2.3.2. Task-based approach to grammar teaching
Task-based approach is a dynamic and developing learning method. It advocates
learning language knowledge and training skills in the process of completing tasks.
Teachers are no longer just instructors but also guides, nor are learners just receivers but
also principal agents. Through this approach, learners will learn how to make full sense of
their own communicative abilities to transfer from mother language to the target language.
It provides an opportunity for them to learn together and mobilizes their potential abilities
to use and handle the target language skilfully.

Since the 1980s, task-based approach has attracted more and more attention in the
foreign language teaching field. It is a learner-centered approach, which considers
language as a communicative tool. It is in accordance with the direction of English
teaching reform in Vietnam. Task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for


15

learners to learn language both in speaking and writing through learning activities which
are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language
for meaningful purpose.

2.3.2.1. Definition of "Task" and types of tasks in language teaching and learning
Definition of "Task"
The meaning of "Task" has been given in various ways.
Long (1985: 89) defines "task" as a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for
others, freely or for some reward. In other words, by "task" it is meant for hundreds of
things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between.
Nunan (1989: 10) defines "task" as a piece of classroom work which involves
learners in comprehending, producing and interacting in the target language while their
attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form.
Willis, J. (1996: 53) gives the meaning of "task" as goal-oriented activity in which
learners use language to achieve a real outcome.
Skehan (1989: 95) lists characteristics of "task" as: 1) meaning is primary; 2) there
is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities; 3) task completion has
some priority; 4) the assessment of tasks is in terms of outcome.
Many definitions can be summarized from the above review. "Tasks" are a series of
correlative and purposeful activities in which learners perform when learning a language,
absorbing information, solving problems, and achieving goals with the target language as
they do in the real world. "Task" is an essential part of the whole course that leads to

influence in speaking the target language. It is also the process in which learners solve
simulative or real-world problems with the target language. It can help learners acquire
language knowledge and develop their comprehensive abilities in solving problems.
Types of tasks
There are numerous types of tasks. However, they are, in general, are characterized
as two main typologies: pedagogical tasks and target tasks. Pedagogical tasks include any
of a series of techniques designed ultimately to teach students to perform the target task.
Target tasks are much more specific and more explicit related to classroom instruction. In
nature, tasks are categorized as one-way/two-way tasks, planned/unplanned tasks,
close/open tasks, and convergent/divergent tasks. For development of the practical work in
this study, the definitions of these tasks suggested by Long (1989) should be taken into
consideration:


16

• One-way tasks refers to ones in which one person describes the information which
only he or she can see so that others can get it. For example; describe one's own
process of interviewing a number of people on their daily life.
• Two-way tasks are the ones in which each member of a group has exclusive
access to information about the final result of a problem-solving activity. An
example could involve giving one person a version of a picture, giving another
version of the same picture to their partner, and asking them to identify the
differences between the two pictures.
• Planned tasks are the ones that are prepared and planned in advance to access
their effects on written or oral work. For example: planning the words, phrases and
ideas before carrying out an interview.
• Unplanned tasks: the ones that are not prepared and planned in advance before
accessing their effects on written or oral work. For example: students are asked to
have informal face-to-face conversations.

• Convergent tasks include problem-solving through social interaction, decision
making, arrangement making and information organizing through conversation or
correspondence.
• Divergent tasks include topic discussions through the exchange of information,
ideas, opinions, attitudes, feelings, experiences and plans.

2.3.2.2. Definitions and features of task-based teaching approach
Task-based teaching approach, which was put forward in the 1980s, derives its idea
from the process syllabus. It can be regarded as one particular approach to implement the
broader "communicative approach". It is a teaching method that puts tasks at the center of
the methodological focus. It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks
that are directly linked to the curricular goals. The aim of task-based learning is to make
language classroom approximate to the target language environment, develop students
ability to communicate, and communication takes place through using the grammatical
system.
Nunan (1999) defines task-based language teaching as follows, "Task-based
language teaching is an approach to the design of language course in which the point of
departure is not an ordered list of linguistic items, but a collection of tasks". Tasks provide
the basis for an entire language curriculum. Task-based language teaching provides
learners with opportunities to experiment with and explore both spoken and written


17

language through tasks designed to engage learners in authentic, practical and functional
use of language for meaningful purpose.
About the features of task-based language teaching, Nunan (1991) gives a summary
as follows:
(1) An emphasis on learning to communicative through interaction in the target
language;

(2) The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation;
(3) The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language, but
also on the learning process itself;
(4) An enhancement of the learners' own personal experiences as important
contributing elements to classroom learning;
(5) An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation
outside the classroom.

2.3.2.3. The implementation of task-based approach
Brown (1994) referred to task-based approach as a series of tasks which directly
serve and connect with teaching purpose transcending merely practicing language for
language. It is the core of task-based approach to complete a real and meaningful task
through the common effort of both teachers and learners (Willis, 1996). Therefore, learners
learn the language skills naturally rather than take language as fragments and practice
some language components mechanically. The common essence of TBA and
communicative approach is that they both give top priority to fostering learners'
communicative ability in the target language.
Traditional foreign language teaching approaches in Vietnam place too much
emphasis on instruction and pay too much attention to explaining language forms. All the
practices focus on grammar teaching and seldom give consideration to authenticity and
communicative function of language. While in task-based approach, an independent
teaching unit consists of only one task; all the classroom activities center on the task and
serve the task.
As a teaching approach, it is not persuasive when it only stops at the theoretical
level; the key issue is the way teachers put it into practice. So far, the research of practicing
task-based approach has been best represented by Skehan (1998) and Willis (1996) who
both agreed on the key issue and fully suggest the idea of using task-based approach in


18

teaching. Willis's framework will be taken as an example to talk about the teaching pattern
of task-based approach.
Generally speaking, Willis's (1996) teaching framework can be divided into the
following three stages: pre-task, task cycle and language focus. Willis puts language focus
in the last stage, which is totally different from traditional language teaching process.
Communicative tasks which involve the four basic language skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing are the centre of the whole teaching framework. Learners start with
experiencing the practice of language, and end with reviewing the rules of language. A
model for TB instruction designed by Willis (1996) is presented in Table 1.

Pre-task
Introduction to topic and tasks

Task Cycle
Task
Planning
Report
Language focus
Analysis
Practice

Table 1: Willis's model for task-based instruction (Willis, 1996:52)

1- Pre- task: Topics and tasks are introduced in the pre-task stage. Teachers introduce
tasks to learners . They present necessary knowledge, explain the requirements and
procedures of the task in detail and help learners familiarize with the topic, vocabulary and
expressions. In this stage, teachers should take the individual differences among learners
into account.
2- Task cycle: Task cycle can be divided into three parts: task, planning and report.

i) Task. In this part, learners are given plenty of chances to express their ideas in the
target language. The fluency of language is emphasized. Learners implement tasks
in pairs or groups. Teachers supervise the process without interrupting their speech
and correcting their errors so that the learners feel safe to express themselves freely.
Teachers should help learners gain confidence in language learning. Emphasis lays
on communication not accuracy of language.
ii) Planning. This part is preparation for report. Each group is getting ready to show
classmates their process and achievements of the task. Since learners have to report
publicly, emphasis of language naturally transfers from fluency to accuracy. In this
part, teachers should give suggestions and correct grammar.


19

iii) Report. Several learners report to the class while other learners should listen
carefully and compare those reports. In this way, all the learners are involved.
Besides, teachers should be commentators to assess the implementation of tasks.
3- Language focus. Learning by doing motivates learners to fulfill their potential. Learners
master the language by using it communicatively in the classroom, and they still have to
learn grammar and memorize vocabulary. Teachers lead learners' attention to language
forms. Some exercises are necessary to consolidate the learnt knowledge and improve their
sensitivity to language form. It is divided into two parts.
i) Analysis. The purpose in this part is to help learners explore the usage of
language, become aware of syntax, phrase arrangements and vocabulary, etc., and
help them to systemize the language features they observed in learning process, so
as to discover new language knowledge.
ii) Practice. It is necessary for learners to do some exercises under the guide of
teachers. This part makes the whole teaching procedure be accepted by learners
more easily. It also functions as a conclusion of the whole teaching procedure.

2.3.2.4. Integration of the task-based teaching approach into grammar teaching
* Teaching activities
At present, most teachers adopt the traditional teaching method in the grammar
class. They spend a lot of time explaining the grammar points, analyzing long and boring
sentences and expounding less useful but difficult words. This method focuses on form,
and the process of presentation, practice and production is deadly dull, full of drills and
drudgery. It is so boring that it cannot arouse students' interest, so it is not an effective way
to teaching grammar.
Task-based language teaching approach can be viewed as within the framework of
communicative teaching and the study of task-based language teaching stems largely from
communicative language teaching (Nunan, 1989). It puts tasks at the center of the
methodological focus. It considers the learning process as a set of communicative tasks
that are directly linked to the curricular goals. It emphasizes the development of students'
communicative ability and communication takes place through using the grammatical
system of the language. It combines the teaching of language forms with teaching of
language skills. Therefore, it has significance or is effective in grammar teaching.
In order to confirm whether the task-based teaching approach is useful in grammar
teaching, I will make an experiment based on Willis' model of task-based teaching