Sử dụng một số hoạt động bổ trợ nhằm nâng cao hiệu quả việc học từ vựng chuyên ngành cho sinh viên năm thứ ba Khoa Du lịch học, Trường Đại học Khoa học Xã hội v

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
-------o0o-------

PHẠM THANH VIỆT

THE USE OF EXTRA ACTIVITES TO IMPROVE ESP
VOCABULARY FOR THIRD – YEAR STUDENTS AT
FACULTY OF TOURISM, USSH – VNU
(Sử dụng một số hoạt động bổ trợ nhằm nâng cao hiệu quả việc học từ
vựng chuyên ngành cho sinh viên năm thứ ba Khoa Du lịch học, Trường
Đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn, ĐHQG Hà Nội)

MA. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410

Hanoi, 2009


VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI
UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
-------o0o-------

PHẠM THANH VIỆT

THE USE OF EXTRA ACTIVITES TO IMPROVE ESP
VOCABULARY FOR THIRD – YEAR STUDENTS AT

FACULTY OF TOURISM, USSH – VNU
(Sử dụng một số hoạt động bổ trợ nhằm nâng cao hiệu quả việc học từ
vựng chuyên ngành cho sinh viên năm thứ ba Khoa Du lịch học, Trường
Đại học Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn, ĐHQG Hà Nội)

MA. MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology
Code: 601410
Supervisor: MA. Kim Văn Tất

Hanoi, 2009


iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents

Page number

Candidate’s statement…………………………………………………………………….

i

Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………………

ii

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….

iii

Table of contents ………………………………………………………………………...

iv

INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………….

1

1. Rationale of the study………………………………………………………...........

1

2. Aims and objectives of the study …………………………………………………

2

3. Scope of the study …………………………………………………………...........

2

4. Research questions ……………………………………………………………......

2

5. Method of the study ……………………………………………………………….

3

6. Design of the study …………………………………………………………..........

3

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………..

4

1.1 Definition of vocabulary ………………………………………………………...

4

1.2 The role of vocabulary in language learning and teaching ……………………...

4

1.3 Principle of vocabulary teaching…………………………………………………

5

1.3.1 Selecting vocabulary to teach ……………………………………………...

5

1.3.2 What needs to be taught about the vocabulary item? ……………………...

6

1.3.2.1 Meaning ………………………………………………………….......

7

1.3.2.2 Usage…………………………………………………………………

8

1.3.2.3 Form …………………………………………………………………

8

1.3.2.4 Grammar ……………………………………………………………..

9

1.4 Vocabulary teaching and learning ……………………………………………….

10

1.4.1. Vocabulary Learning ……………………………………………………...

10

1.4.1.1 Explicit vocabulary learning ………………………………………...

10

1.4.1.2 Implicit vocabulary learning ………………………………………...

11

1.4.2 Vocabulary Teaching ……………………………………………………...

11

1.4.2.1 Presentation techniques ……………………………………………...

11

1.4.2.2 Practice and consolidation activities ………………………………...

12

1.5 Vocabulary in ESP teaching and learning ……………………………………….

13

1.5.1 What is ESP? ………………………………………………………………

13


v
1.5.2 How is ESP different from ESL/ GE? ……………………………………..

14

1.5.3 What is ESP vocabulary? ………………………………………………….

15

1.5.4 Identify the needs of ESP learners for vocabulary ………………………...

16

1.5.5. Important aspects of ESP vocabulary teaching …………………………...

17

1.5.5.1 Word formation ……………………………………………………...

17

1.5.5.2 Word relations ……………………………………………………….

18

1.5.5.3 Presentation techniques ……………………………………………...

19

1.5.5.4 Practice and consolidation techniques ……………………………….

19

1.5.5.5 Dictionaries and online – dictionaries ……………………………….

20

1.5.6 Features of vocabulary in tourism ………………………………….……...

20

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH TEACHING AND LEARNING AT
FACULTY OF TOURISM …...…………………………………………..
2.1 The students ……………………………………………………………………...

22
22

2.2 The teachers ……………………………………………………………………...

22

2.3 The teaching facilities, syllabus, and course book ………………………………

23

2.4 Problems of the students of tourism ……………………………………………..

24

CHAPTER 3: THE STUDY ……………………………………………………………..

26

3.1 Subjects of the study ……………………………………………………………..

26

3.2 Instruments and materials used in the study ……………………………………..

26

3.2.1 The questionnaires …………………………………………………………

26

3.2.2 Handouts and additional reading materials ………………………………..

27

3.2.3. Supplementary listening lessons …………………………………………..

27

3.3 Data analysis and findings ……………………………………………………….

28

3.3.1. About the first questionnaire………………………………………………

28

3.3.2. About the second questionnaire …………………………………………...

28

3.3.2.1. Students’ evaluation of the applied extra vocabulary activities…….

29

3.3.2.2. Effectiveness of extra vocabulary activities on the vocabulary
memory capacity of the student …………………………………… 29
3.3.2.3. Students’ assessment about the effectiveness of extra vocabulary
activities ……………………………………………………………. 29
3.3.2.4. Students’ favourite extra vocabulary activity ……………………… 30
3.4 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………….

31

CHAPTER 4: SUGGESTED EXTRA ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE VOCABULARY
OF STUDENTS OF TOURISM ………………………………………...
4.1 Useful notices for extra vocabulary activities …………………………………...

34

4.2. Suggested extra vocabulary activities …………………………………………..

34

34


vi
4.2.1 Vocabulary presentation activities ………………………………………...

34

4.2.2 Vocabulary practicing activities …………………………………………...

37

4.2.3 Vocabulary revising activities ……………………………………………..

39

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………...

41

1. Summary of the study ……………………………………………………………..

41

2. Implications ……………………………………………………………………….

42

3. Limitations and recommendations for further study ……………………………...

43

REFERENCE ………………………………………………………………………........

44

APPENDIXES

1

INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
Together with teaching General English (GE), many teachers are now required to teach
English to students of different fields such as tourism, medicine, engineering, etc. namely
English for Special Purposes (ESP). Many universities in Vietnam, including the University
of Social Science and Humanity, Hanoi, have paid more attention to ESP and offered ESP
courses to English learners, especially to non – major students.
Despite many similarities to GE, ESP is viewed difficult to teach by language teachers due to
unfavourable working conditions, lack of subject knowledge, and, sometimes, the language
itself with many terms, expressions, and structures. Teaching and learning ESP in general and
ESP vocabulary in particular are a matter of concern for many linguistic researchers and
teachers.
Vocabulary plays an important role in deciding language proficiency of every learner. J. Read
(2000: 1) states “vocabulary is the basic building block of language, the unit of meaning from
which larger structures such as sentences, paragraphs and whole text are formed”. The great
importance of vocabulary is also stressed in Harmer‟s statement: “If language structures
make up the skeleton of language, then it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the
flesh” (Harmer 1991:153). Moreover, according to Wilkin (1972), “without grammar, very
little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”.
The lack of vocabulary not only prevents learners from expressing themselves in speaking
and writing but also makes it difficult for them to comprehend a reading passage. Thus,
learning process is hindered. I also agree with Wallace when he points out that “not being
able to find the words you need to express yourself is the most frustrating experience in
speaking another language” (Wallace 1984:9). Having taught English to students of Tourism
for several years, I find out that my students face a great difficulty in learning vocabulary,
especially ESP vocabulary partly due to lack of practice and revision whereas the vocabulary
activities in the course book proves to be quite few and not various. Therefore, I have decided
to conduct a study on “The use of extra activities to improve ESP vocabulary for third –

year students at Faculty of Tourism, USSH – VNU” with a hope to help my students learn
ESP vocabulary better.


2

2. Aims and objectives of the study
The study is carried out with the following aims:


Investigate the students‟ attitudes toward learning vocabulary



Investigate the students‟ attitude toward vocabulary activities in the course book



Encourage learners‟ autonomy in learning vocabulary through guidance and
instruction.



Investigate the effectiveness of extra activities on vocabulary learning of students



Identify which extra activities applied are most preferred by the students.

The author of this study, by doing such research, hopes to contribute to the improvement of

ESP teaching and learning in general and ESP vocabulary teaching in particular at USSH –
VNU.

3. Scope of the study
Obviously, we have a wide range of choice of activities that can help to improve ESP
vocabulary of students. However, this research only targets on the extra activities that were
designed and introduced by the author to the third – year students at Faculty of Tourism,
USSH. Also, it focuses on exploiting words, expressions and terms of the book English for
Students of Tourism, which is now being used as textbook in class for the target students,
edited by a group of teachers at the Department of Foreign Languages, USSH – VNU, and
some additional reading materials as well as supplementary listening lessons provided by the
teacher.
With such limited scope, the result of this research, of course, may not be applicable to
students of all levels or of all classes as well.

4. Research questions
This study was carried out in order to find the answer to two questions as follows:
1. How do extra activities help improve ESP vocabulary of third-year students at
Faculty of Tourism, USSH – VNU?
2. Which applied activity is most favoured by the students?


3

5. Method of the study
The study applied quantitative approach which included two questionnaires for the target
students (one questionnaire is provided before the application of extra activities, and the other
is provided after the students have done all the activities designed and provided by the
teacher). The data collected from the two questionnaires is analyzed statistically. Moreover,
the author‟s own experience in designing specific vocabulary activities and the analysis of the

used textbook, additional reading and supplementary listening materials will contribute to the
completion of the study.

6. Design of the study
The study is designed as follows:


Introduction. This part provides a general introduction of the research including the
rationale, the aims and objectives, the scope, the research questions, the methodology,
and the design of the thesis.



Chapter 1: Literature review. This chapter deals with the theoretical background of
the research. It concerns with the issues of vocabulary teaching and learning in
general as well as ESP teaching and learning in particular.



Chapter 2: Overview of English teaching and learning at Faculty of Tourism,
USSH – VNU. This chapter reveals the fact of the students, teachers, as well as the
problems students facing in English learning.



Chapter 3: The study. The study itself is described in this chapter. It provides
information about the participants and the questionnaires, the material to be used. The
later part of this chapter provides the analysis of collected data as well as findings and
discussion.



Chapter 4: Suggestions for extra activities used to improve ESP vocabulary for
students of tourism, USSH – VNU. In this chapter, extra activities used in the
research are described in detail.



Conclusion. The conclusion summarizes the issues addressed and presents limitation
of the research as well as recommendations for further improvements or research.


4

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
Vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the language is first, second
or foreign. Although vocabulary has not always been recognized as a priority in language
teaching, interests in its role in second language learning has grown rapidly in recent years
and specialists now emphasize the need for a systematic and principled approach to
vocabulary by both the teacher and the learner. This chapter deals with theoretical
background of vocabulary in general and ESP vocabulary in particular.

1.1 Definition of vocabulary
Nobody can deny that vocabulary, together with grammar, phonology, is an essential
component of language. Thus, there exit various concepts relating to vocabulary. In Longman
dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistic, vocabulary is defined as “a set of
lexemes, including single words, compound words and idioms” (Richards, 1997:400). Pyles
and Algeo (1970) stated “it is true that vocabulary is the focus of language with its sound and
meaning, which interlock to allow us to communicate with one another, and it is words that
we arrange together to make sentences, conversation and discourse of all kind”. Meanwhile,

Penny Ur (1996) maintained “a new item of vocabulary may be more than a single word, a
compound of two or three words and multi-words idioms”.
The above quotations about vocabulary have given us at least a partial answer to the question
of what vocabulary is in terms of vocabulary teaching and learning. Vocabulary deals not
only with simple words which may express a single idea, but also with complex, compound
words and multi – words idioms which can only be understood in a given sentence or context.

1.2 The role of vocabulary in language learning and teaching
“When most of us think about language, we think first about words” (Pyles and Algeo, 1970).
The quotation has proved the essential role of vocabulary in language. Obviously, for most
language learners it is important to acquire the components of a language before developing
its skills. People, in communication, can understand each other even if they make
grammatical mistakes. However, not knowing the exact word that you need makes it
frustrating for both you and the interlocutor. That is why Flower and Berman (1989) came to
a conclusion that “good English means having a big vocabulary”.


5
Yet, knowing a lot of words makes no certainty that you will be successful in communication
but put a restraint on your effective communication in the target language. After
accumulating an amount of words, learners will be able to communicate at a certain level
from the very first stage. Then, the skills of language, such as speaking, etc. can be
developed.
In conclusion, vocabulary plays a fundamental role in a language. It serves as a foundation on
which all language skills are built. Thus, teachers often feel obliged to instruct learners how
to learn vocabulary probably.

1.3 Principle of vocabulary teaching
1.3.1 Selecting vocabulary to teach
For teachers the first thing comes to mind is determining what words to teach. The words to

be taught, which are useful to students, depend on the particular teaching situation. When
preparing a word list for the students to learn the teachers have to take into consideration the
following criteria:


Frequency;



Coverage;



Language needs;



Ease of learning or learning burden;



Regularity;



Familiarity with the corresponding word in the students‟ mother tongue.

According to Harmer (1991), however, there are two general principles of vocabulary
selection:


The principle of frequency – words that are frequently used should be taught first,



And the principle of coverage – words that comprise more things and have not just
one specific meaning are useful to be taught as first.

According to R.Gairns and S.Redman (1999), vocabulary to be taught comes from following
main sources:


The course book which includes both written and spoken texts.


6


Supplementary materials which include drills, exercises, texts, audio, video, etc



The students who provide a wide range of unanticipated and unpredictable items in
forms of questions, enquiries, and even errors.



Specific vocabulary activities designed by the teacher for his particular group of
students.

In addition to above-mentioned principles, Gairns and Redman (1986) provide also cultural
factors and the principle of need and level. Learnability and teachability are other criteria we
should take into consideration.
1.3.2 What needs to be taught about the vocabulary item?
Once we have chosen what words to teach it is also necessary to know what to teach about
each lexical item. There are many categories which can be taught to know the word properly;
nevertheless, it is not necessary for learners to know about all the words they have learnt.
As for what involved in the learning of a new word, B. Laufer summarizes that knowledge of
the following is necessary in order to know a word:


Form



Word structure



Syntactic pattern of the word in a phrase and sentence



Meaning



Lexical relation of the word with other words, such as synonymy, antonymy,
hyponymy



Common collocations

According to Harmer (1991:158) to know the word involves knowing its:


Meaning (its definition) - meanings in context, sense relations (synonyms, antonyms)



Usage – collocations, idioms and metaphors, style and register



Form – spelling and pronunciation, prefixes and suffixes, parts of speech



Grammar – irregular forms, phrasal verbs, adverbs and adjectives

1.3.2.1 Meaning


7
The meaning of a word, which can be found in the dictionary, is primarily what it refers to in
the real world – its denotation. While a less obvious component of meaning of a word is its
connotation in different contexts or its connotative meaning, which may or may not be
indicated in the dictionary. This is the association or positive or negative feeling it evokes.
Also, it is useful to teach the way the meaning of words is related to students. Such

relationships are various including synonyms, antonyms, translation, and so on.
The meaning of words can be communicated in many different ways. Nation (1994) suggests
that teachers can convey meaning to their students by demonstration or pictures and by verbal
explanation. Besides that, teachers should involve their students in discovering the words‟
meanings by themselves and let them make efforts to understand words‟ meanings. When the
students are involved in discovering meaning, they will never forget those meanings and they
will be able to express themselves fluently.
When a single word has various meanings, the teacher should decide which meanings are to
be taught first, i.e., the teacher must decide which meanings occur most frequently and which
meanings the learners need most. As a result, the students will be motivated, and gradually
they will build their own store of words which will be a basis for communication at any time.
Furthermore, students should be familiar with the words‟ meanings when words are used in
metaphors and idioms, and they should know when to choose the right word for the right
place.
1.3.2.2 Usage
Vocabulary knowledge involves considerably more than just knowing the meaning of a given
word in isolation; it also involves knowing the words that tend to co- occur with it. These
patterns, or collocations, consist of pairs or groups of words that co-occur with a very high
frequency and are important in vocabulary learning because “the meaning of a word has a
great deal to do with the words with which it commonly associates” (Nattinger, 1988, p.69).
These associations assist the learner in committing these words to memory and also aid in
defining the semantic area of a word.
If collocational associations are not learned as part of L2 vocabulary knowledge, learners‟
speech or writing will be marked as deviant or odd in some way and as decided non – native.


8
According to De Carrico (2001), when concerning collocational associations as memory aids,
researchers have noted that vocabulary is best learned in context and that words that are
naturally associated in a text are more easily learned than those having no such associations.

In terms of syntax, collocation can be divided into two mains syntactic groups: grammatical
and lexical. In grammatical collocations, a noun, verb, or adjective frequently co – occurs
with a grammatical item, usually a preposition. For example, reason for, rely on, account for.
Whereas lexical collocations do not contain grammatical words but combinations of full
lexical items, i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These combinations are such verb +
noun (spend time, leave a message), adjective + noun (luxurious hotel, spacious room), verb
+ adverb (serve carefully), and adverb + adjective (terribly sorry).
According to Bahns (1993), learners seem to rely on a “hypothesis of transferability”
whereby the majority of collocational errors found in learner English can be traced to L1
influence. For example, Vietnamese learners in elementary level usually say phone to
somebody instead of phone somebody, based on influence from a Vietnamese equivalent.
Bahns also recommends that teacher should help students focus on identifying the differences
for a chosen group of semantically equivalent L1/L2 pairs.
1.3.2.3 Form
Students also need to know the different forms words have and when to use them. Therefore,
word formation is a very important part in teaching vocabulary. Getting familiar with the
different forms of words, the students can easily know how to use the words in writing and
speaking.
Because word formation provides essential clues for word recognition, language teachers
should be prepared to teach the basic rules of productive word-forming processes. According
to a number of sources, the five most productive types of word formation in present day
English are affixation, compounding, clipping, conversion, and blending. Studies suggest that
different instructional strategies should be placed in the foreground in teaching vocabulary at
different proficiency levels. While basic students learn from selective listening, songs,
rhymes, and drills, more advanced learners would be better served by synonym and antonym
exercises and with clusters of contextualized vocabulary arranged according to situational or
semantic categories.


9

According to Bauer (1973) and Quirk et al (1985), English word formation is generally
divided into two main parts. The first part includes affixation, compounding, and conversion;
the second part includes what Bauer calls "unpredictable" formations: clipping, blending, and
acronyms.
Affixation is a bound morpheme that occurs before or after or within a base, commonly
known as: prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. In English word formation, infixes do not occur.
Prefixes are those bound morphemes that occur before a base as in prefix. Their meanings are
often those of English prepositions and adverbials. Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur
after a base. Unlike prefixes, suffixes frequently alter the word-class. Four main sorts of
suffixes are usually distinguished to form nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
A compound is a unit consisting of two or more bases. But this definition is not quite
sufficient, since derivational processes may sometimes apply to forms combining more than
one base. A compound, Bauer (1973) suggests, may be more fully defined as a lexeme
containing two or more potential stems that has not subsequently been subjected to
derivational process. Four major kinds of compounds are generally distinguished in English
such as: compound nouns, compound verbs, compound adverbs, and compound adjectives.
Conversion is the derivational process whereby an item changes its word-class without the
addition of an affix (Quirk, et al., 1985). It is an extremely productive way of producing new
words of English since there are no morphological restrictions on the forms that can undergo
conversion. Conversion seems to be able to produce words of almost any form class. The
major kinds of conversion are: noun → verb (a bottle → to bottle), verb → noun (to call →
call) and adjective → verb (dirty → to dirty).
Clipping means cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand
for a whole. Examples are: lab, dorm, prof, exam, math, and countless others.
Blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first part of one word with the part
of another as in gasohol, from gasoline and alcohol. The resultant blend partakes of both
original meanings.
Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. They are usually pronounced
as the spelling indicates: VIP (very important person). etc.

10
1.3.2.4 Grammar
Word grammar is one of the most important parts that students should be taught carefully.
Teachers should give the students the opportunity to be exposed to grammatical patterns and
to practice them frequently, such as nouns (countable and uncountable), verb
complementation, phrasal verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Therefore, different parts of speech
should usually be taught separately because they occur in differing sentence pattern, but they
need not be widely separated in a course if their meanings are very similar.

1.4 Vocabulary teaching and learning
Teaching vocabulary is not just conveying the meaning to the students and asking them to
learn those words by heart. If teachers believe that the words are worth explaining and
learning, then it is important that they should do this efficiently. Teachers should use different
techniques and activities in teaching English vocabulary to motivate the learners, enrich their
vocabulary and enable them to speak English properly.
There are many techniques and activities that teachers can employ and use in teaching
vocabulary, such as presentation, discovery techniques and practice. Teaching vocabulary
involves not only presentation of new words but also practice and consolidation.
1.4.1. Vocabulary Learning
1.4.1.1 Explicit vocabulary learning
In explicit vocabulary learning students engage in activities that focus attention on
vocabulary. It is a very important consideration that we can maximize vocabulary learning
considerably by teaching word families instead of individual words forms. Presenting word
families with many words built around a particular root, gather word together so that
association among them can be seen (DeCarrico, 2001).
Meaning associations attached to words are also important. Words appear to be organized
into semantically related sets in the mind, and thus the association attached to a word will
affect the way that it stores in the brain. Psychologists investigate these associations by
presenting subjects with a word and asking them to suggest other words that bring to mind.

1.4.1.2 Implicit vocabulary learning


11
Implicit vocabulary learning can be understood as incidental vocabulary learning that occurs
when the mind is focused elsewhere, such as on understanding a text or using language for
communicative purposes. According to Huckin and Coady (1999), implicit learning occurs
through multiple exposures to a word in different context.
The common problem facing many language learners is the lack of exposure; “a way to
combat this problem is to expose students to extensive reading in which reading is done
consistently over a period of time” (DeCarrico, 2001:289). Reading material should also be
appropriate to the level of students. As DeCarrico (2001) puts it intermediate students, who
are just on the threshold of reading authentic text, should read a numerous authentic texts on
the same topic. In such way the text will provide multiple exposures as topic specific
vocabulary is repeated in different context which expand what is know about it, thus
improving the quality of knowledge, with additional exposures helping to consolidate it in
memory.
1.4.2 Vocabulary Teaching
New words should neither be taught in isolation nor be learned simply by memorization. It is
important that new vocabulary items be taught in an appropriate way. Thus, techniques and
activities in vocabulary teaching are used
1.4.2.1 Presentation techniques
The aim of presentation stage is to establish the basic meaning and the correct form of the
word in the learner‟s memory. There are many ways how to present the meaning of new
items. “Most of these are means which tend to be associated with a more teacher-centred
approach and consequently the items taught through these means are usually selected by the
teacher rather than the learner” (Gairns and Redman 1986:73). That is why it is important to
decide which form is suitable for the particular situation. It is often to use visual techniques
(flash cards, pictures, drawings, charts, realia, ect.), verbal techniques (definition,
synonyms/antonyms, etc.), and translation. However, as Harmer (1991:162) suggests it is not

always the best way since it is sometimes difficult to find the appropriate translation of the
word and the process of translating does not encourage the manipulation with words which is
very important for the consolidation stage. At intermediate levels we can use discovery
techniques. They employ the learner‟s previous knowledge and activate the work with words.
Discovery techniques together with using dictionaries and asking others activities belong to


12
more emphasised strategies that allow the learner more autonomy than the above mentioned
techniques.
It is suggested that closely related synonyms or antonyms should probably be avoided if the
activities of word pairing is used since research shows that similarities between words can
make learning more difficult because of interference, or cross - association. The way to avoid
cross – association in closely related semantic group is to integrate new words with old ones
by teaching the most frequent and useful and only after it is well- established introduce its
less frequent antonym partner (Nation 1990; Schmitt 2000).
For presenting word families, one way is simply to introduce such a family along with the
definitions for each word. Another way is to isolate the word families that occur in a
particular text by highlighting them so that students can see the relationships. Highlighting
passages in texts has the advantage of providing a more natural context in which students can
trace words through the discourse and observe how the form change according to discourse
function. Texts may be authentic materials or, may be simple natural constructed by the
teacher.
1.4.2.2 Practice and consolidation activities
The aim of this stage is to store the new word in the long-term memory and to turn passive
vocabulary into active vocabulary. The practice should be carefully organized so that the load
of new lexis would not discourage the learner. In addition, it is important to emphasize “that
experiments on vocabulary seem to suggest that students remember best when they have
actually done something with the words they are learning” (Harmer 1991:160).
Consequently, there are many techniques that involve more than just repeating vocabulary

and that help to fix the new word in the learner‟s memory. To name some of them: filling in
gaps in sentences, matching words to other words, replacing words with their synonyms or
antonyms, memory games, paraphrasing, using words in sentences or dialogues, role plays,
discussions, picture stories, using prefixes and suffixes to build new words from given words
etc.
Semantic mapping is an activity that helps recall relationships among learned words and
helps deepen understanding by creating associative networks for words. In such activity,
students are asked to draw a diagram of the relationships between particular words they have


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learned so far in a given topic or theme. Words association activities can also be constructed
with lists of words that have been learned.
According to De Carrico (2001), another consideration in teaching vocabulary is promoting a
deep level of processing. The reason is that learning may involve either short – term memory
or long – term memory. The important of promoting a deep level of processing is to transfer
information from short – term memory into long – term memory, which has almost unlimited
storage capacity. “The more students manipulate and think about the words, the more likely it
is that the words will be transferred into long – term memory”. Research indicates that
efficient learning of vocabulary is an incremental process, one that requires meaningful
recurring encounters with a word over time. With respect to classroom activities, a semantic
mapping or other semantic network activities could be followed later with pair matching
activities, along the lines illustrated earlier.

1.5 Vocabulary in ESP teaching and learning
Previously, we have discussed the situation in ELT vocabulary teaching. However, as it has
been mentioned in the introduction the students at the Faculty of Tourism should be trained in
the ESP vocabulary, namely English for Students of Tourism that is covered by English for
Occupational Purposes. Before the special aspects of teaching ESP vocabulary are discussed,
we will first define what the ESP and what ESP vocabulary are.

1.5.1 What is ESP?
A very general definition of ESP was offered by Hoffmann: "By LSP we understand a
complete set of linguistic phenomena occurring within a definite sphere of communication
and limited by specific subjects, intentions, and conditions" (Hoffmann 1979:16).
As Dudley-Evans & St John and Anthony (1998) put it, English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
is centered on the language appropriate to the activities of the discipline it serves in terms of
grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.
Another definition is Komarova & Lipgart‟s (1994): “By ESP we understand a variety of
English characterised by the two most important features: a definite conceptual orientation,
and a set of linguistic restrictions imposed upon the contextual functioning of words. »
However, according to P. Strevens (1988), ESP consists of English teaching which is:


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

designed to meet specified needs of the learner;



related to content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupation
and activities;



center on the language appropriate to those activities, in syntax, lexis, discourse,
semantics, etc;



in contrast with General English

The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students
approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them.
This means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom right away in their
work and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning
and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their
interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts.
ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of
relevant skills. ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a
combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their
English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management,
economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that
they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation.
The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire
English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the
English of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content
is expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students' knowledge of the
subject matter, thus helping them learn English faster.
1.5.2 How is ESP different from ESL/ GE?
The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English.
ESP students are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and are
learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform
particular job-related functions. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of
purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required.


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ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language
structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and

business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated
from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area
important to the learners.
However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim of
instruction. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading,
speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in ESP it is a need analysis that determines which
language skills are most needed by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An
ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students
who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the
development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist
guides.
1.5.3 What is ESP vocabulary?
In addition to General English vocabulary which include grammatical words, basic lexical
words, auxiliaries, “special lexical items appear in most professions, and every field has
special vocabulary to cover abstract concepts” (Hatch and Brown 1995:312). Kennedy and
Bolitho (1984:56-58) provide the following specialist word categories for teaching purposes:
- Technical Abbreviations – e.g. kph, km, m3 they usually do not cause a problem,
however, learners should listen to them and practise them in note-taking exercises.
- Symbols and Formulae – they are the subject matter of the learner‟s speciality, and
teacher may explain their function in the text, or if abbreviations are concerned, to
demonstrate their transfer from the written form into the spoken version and vice versa.
- Sub-technical vocabulary – “words that have one or more „general‟ English meanings
and which in technical contexts take on extended meanings (technical, or specialized in
some fashion)” (Trimble 1985:129) or as the Kennedy and Bolitho´s definition states
“words which are not specific to a subject speciality but which occur regularly in
scientific and technical texts – e.g. reflection, intense, accumulate, tendency, isolate and
dense” (1984:57-58).


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According to Inmann (cited in Kennedy Bolitho 1984: 58) sub-technical vocabulary
seems to be involved in almost 80 per cent of scientific texts which is a quite high
occurrence. Furthermore, as Trimble (1985:129) emphasized the sub-technical lexis
have their meanings in „general‟ English and take on specialized meanings within a
technical context, which often represent a problem for both the learner and the teacher.
Consequently, it is the sub-technical lexis that teacher should give high priority when
teaching ESP vocabulary.
- Highly technical vocabulary – these terms are very specific and so may be less
comprehensible. Every subject has its set of highly technical vocabulary and the gap
between the generally known terms and those known just by real specialists is quite
wide in some fields. Kennedy and Bolitho (1984: 57) suggest that these terms “should
arise, in context, in the specialist classes and are not normally the teacher‟s
responsibility”.
1.5.4 Identify the needs of ESP learners for vocabulary
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55) necessities can be understood as “what the
learner needs to know in order to function in the target situation effectively,” which in terms
of vocabulary means to know vocabulary which is “commonly used in the situation
identified”.
To define what the learner already knows is necessary. The learner‟s lack is then the gap
between what he knows and the target necessities. In terms of vocabulary it means to
determine which of the words that are commonly used in the identified situation are in the
learners lexicon and which are necessary to be taught.
So far, the objective aspects of the target needs were taken into consideration, but also the
learner has his own idea of his needs. Since the learner motivation is of high importance in
both the learning and teaching process, the learner‟s wants is the area that the teacher has also
to pay attention to when teaching ESP vocabulary. In short “if the student does not perceive
the vocabulary input to be useful it will be difficult to engage his interest and so effective
learning of everything else will also be reduced” (Gairns and Redman 1986:60)

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Altogether, as Kennedy and Bolitho (1984:22-23) point out that the more the teacher
specifies the learner‟s needs the more the learner‟s expectations are increased and the teacher
has something to live up to.
1.5.5. Important aspects of ESP vocabulary teaching
As having mentioned in section 2.3.2 “What needs to be taught about the vocabulary item” it
is the meaning and form of the word that should be focused on in ESP vocabulary teaching.
Consequently, Kennedy and Bolitho state that “the study of word formation and word
relationships” (1984:59), or sense relations, constitutes the two important aspects of teaching
ESP vocabulary.
1.5.5.1 Word formation
Within this category Kennedy and Bolitho (1984:59) present two areas: the meaning of
prefixes and suffixes, and the identification of word classes. Trimble (1985:131) pays
attention to noun compounding. Many specialized lexical items either technical or subtechnical consist of a root, a prefix and a suffix of Latin or Greek origin, such as mono-,
hyper-, - logy, or -meter, -ate. Students “need to know how suffixes and prefixes work”
(Harmer 1991:157). It is useful for a learner to guess the meaning of a word by using his
knowledge of the meaning of a prefix or a suffix.
Kennedy and Bolitho (1984:61) emphasise the learner‟s ability to identify the word class (a
noun, a verb or a modifier) in the process of deducing the meaning a text. Suffixes often help
to identify the grammatical function of a word and can carry a meaning which may help
identify the word. In other words “there is a strong relationship between the root of the word
and its suffix” (Kennedy and Bolitho 1984: 61), which could be used in many exercises in
order to practise the identification of word classes.
Furthermore, there is technical vocabulary which is represented by noun compounds or “noun
strings” (Trimble 1985:130). Noun compounds consist of two or more nouns and necessary
adjectives (sometimes a verb or an adverb can be a part of noun strings). The whole nouns
string “expresses a ´single noun‟ idea” and so long phrasing in texts can be avoided (Trimble
1985:130-131). However, as Trimble points out, noun compounding is not common to all
languages. Thus, both understanding and producing noun compounds makes problems for
many non-native students and to analyse them is useful to practise (1985:131,163).

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“Compounds are usually formed from prepositional phrases or relative clauses and many can
be back-formed into one or the other of these” (Trimble1985:131). Trimble states basic rules
how to understand and produce from simple to very complex noun strings.
The complex and very complex noun strings present difficulties also for native speakers and
so these “types of compounds are best left out of teaching plans, except, perhaps, for a few
demonstrations of their difficulty” (Trimble 1985:163).
1.5.5.2. Word relations
Kennedy and Bolitho stress that “words do not exist in isolation” (1984:62) and so they
should be taught in context. Furthermore, “the meaning of a word can only be understood and
learnt in terms of relationship with other words in the language” (Gairns and Redman
1986:22). In order to practise these word relationships the learners should do activities
involving synonyms (words with similar meaning), antonyms (words with opposite meaning),
hyponyms (subordinate terms), collocations, phrasal verbs (a base verb and an adverbial
particle) and exercises focused on some other types of relations (e.g. cause and effect).
Contextual clues is an exercise designed to practise word relationship whereas “building up
sets of words related to one another not only practises vocabulary skills but also develops the
concept of classification” (Kennedy and Bolitho 1984:64).
Gairns and Redman point out that “the use of synonyms is often a quick and efficient way of
explaining unknown words” (1986:23). However, it is important to emphasize that “words
seldom have absolute synonyms” (Harmer 1991:156). The ´oppositeness´ may take the form
of complementarity, converseness, gradable antonyms and multiple incompatibles (Gairns
and Redman 1986:24-28).
“When two or more words frequently occur together they make what is known as a
´collocation´. Examples are intense heat, dense system (of roots), but complex system (of
analysis), to rule out a possibility, etc.” (Kennedy and Bolitho 1984:65). To know
collocations means to use a word naturally (Radman 2003:26)
To sum up, word relations not only help the learner of ESP vocabulary understand the

meaning of a word and learn how to use it appropriately but they are also valuable means of
presentation in ESP vocabulary teaching.


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1.5.5. 3 Presentation techniques
Bearing in mind the special aspects of ESP vocabulary teaching “many of the techniques
traditionally used in ELT work can be exploited in ESP vocabulary teaching especially at the
early stages when both subject and linguistic content are at an elementary level” (Kennedy
and Bolitho 1984:59). Thus presentation and practising can be realised by means of visual
techniques and other techniques mentioned above. Sometimes even translation will be useful
and necessary.
However, at the intermediate and higher levels the learners should be given the definition,
explanation or detailed description of the meaning of a new word. When presenting ESP
vocabulary teachers should use the context, associated ideas or make use of synonyms or
antonyms to explain the meaning of an unknown word.
In order not to discourage the learners the teacher‟s presentation of ESP vocabulary should be
interesting, not complicated, motivating, memorable and amusing.
1.5.5.4 Practice and consolidation techniques
As Kennedy and Bolitho assert the process of the introduction of the systems of vocabulary
to the learners and teaching them to classify and guess the meaning of an unknown word is
linked with “the study skill of noting and ordering vocabulary for future reference, and with
decisions about the priorities of different items” (1984:65). It means that a student should be
encouraged to think about whether the word is very important for him and so an example in
context would be useful or whether he just needs a short definition to recognize the word next
time (Kennedy and Bolitho 1984:66).
Learners can organize new items in different ways. However, since “words are not learnt
mechanically, as little packets of meaning, but associatively” (Morgan and Rinvolucri
2004:7) the most effective and favourite strategies in ESP vocabulary teaching are diagrams,
mind maps, word trees, grouping words by activity or process, by categories (building

materials: stone, sand, wood), by word families (to build, builder, building), by topic (at a
building site), synonyms or antonyms. “As organization is the key to memory, this is an
important part of teaching your students how to be efficient learners”(Gairns and Redman
1986:100).


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ESP vocabulary can be practised by means of similar techniques used for practising ELT
vocabulary. Thus, the discussions and simulations focused on working environment and
technical issues requiring the learners´ knowledge of ESP vocabulary are useful.
Written tasks involve writing reports and instructions for use, giving summaries from
technical articles, describing processes, filling in diagrams, describing graphs and tables, or
classifying items into lists etc. In addition, these days many students participate in various
competitions where they introduce their projects and so they may try to develop a brief
English summary of their presentations and their teacher should encourage them.
1.5.5.5 Dictionaries and online - dictionaries
Dictionaries are the best resources where new words and new uses for old words can be
encountered. Whereas the students at elementary level prefer using a good bilingual
dictionary, the students at the intermediate level should be encouraged to use a monolingual
dictionary since it is the best source of information about meaning, spelling, pronunciation,
word formation, grammar, and idiomatic use of a word (Harmer 1991:175). As to the ESP
vocabulary teaching special attention should be paid to the sub-technical vocabulary when
working with both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries. When students discover that the
meanings of some familiar words may be very different and strange, they will understand that
it is worth to buy a good dictionary in their subject-matter (Trimble 1985:129).
The Internet offers some truly unique opportunities that can give teaching new impetus and
be quite a lot of fun for the students. One of these new opportunities is the ability to find the
meanings of technical words that are not available in the traditional. At the same time,
students are exposed to new contexts in which the words are used. Therefore, learners can
quickly improve specific target vocabulary. Most importantly, ESP students get a feel for

how English is used in their applied field.
1.5.6 Features of vocabulary in tourism
When talking about feature of vocabulary of English for Tourism, theorists and researchers
have shown different opinions. Lam (2004) reminds us that tourism English is very different
from general English and that priority should be given to teaching the use of keywords.
However, separating technical vocabulary, in this case tourism vocabulary, from general
vocabulary has not been an easy task (Briggs and Lee, 2002) since this is time-consuming