FOCUS ON EARTH SCIENCE (4)

Earth’s Structure and
Plate Tectonics
The Unique Planet Earth
The structure of our planet, both
inside and out, makes it the only
place in our solar system that harbors
intelligent life.

30 Million Years Ago

1562

1777

North American Plate first
touches the Pacific Plate,
eventually causes the
San Andreas Fault.

Diego Gutierrez
makes first map of
Baja California.

San José was established as the first city
in California.

10 Million Years Ago
San Andreas Fault first moves.

A.D.

42
(bkgd)Chris Collins/CORBIS

1

1500

1700

1750

c. 150

1746

Claudius Ptolemy writes
book on geography that
includes color maps based
on knowledge of Earth’s
surface at the time.

Jean Etienne
Guettard presents
first map of minerals in France to
French Academy
of Sciences.


To learn more about mapmakers and
their work, visit ca6.msscience.com .

Interactive Time Line To learn more about

these events and others, visit ca6.msscience.com.

1800

December 1849

1932

Bird’s-eye-view map,
popular at the time,
shows Sacramento
City, established
as the capital of
California in 1854.

The first time the
Olympics are held in
Los Angeles.

1850
E6C<6

:6

1900

1950

2000

1912

February 2000

Alfred Wegener hypothesizes that continents were
joined sometime in the
past and have spread
apart from tectonic
plate movement.

NASA maps show
Earth’s entire surface
using radar technology
by satellite.

43
NASA


Mapping Earth’s
Surface
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Earth’s surface can be
represented in many ways.
Maps provide twodimensional views of
Earth’s three-dimensional
surface.

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LESSON 1
Reading Maps

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Maps repre-


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sent large
areas of Earth
at a size we can easily
see and study.

2 7.b, 7.c, 7.f, 7.h
Topographic and
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Geologic
Maps
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LESSON

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Specialty
maps,i>`ˆ˜}
are used to show

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specific features such as
changes in elevation and
geologic characteristics.
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Where would you build your home?
Do you wish to live close to the beach? A single centimeter on this satellite
image of the San Francisco Bay area might represent a long distance on land.
Can you tell from this image how steep or flat the ground is? If you look
more closely, you can see the San Andreas Fault. Where would it be safe to
build your home?

-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM List some kinds of information you might get from maps
if you were planning to build a new home.
44

WorldSat International


Start-Up Activities

How might you map
your neighborhood?
What would your
neighborhood look like
from the air? How would
you draw it on paper?

Types of Maps Make the
following Foldable to
organize information about
different types of maps.
STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half from
top to bottom and then in half from side to
side.

Think About This
• Consider What would
you see on the ground if you flew in a
plane over your neighborhood?
• Determine Think about where objects
are in relation to other objects.

STEP 2 Unfold the paper once. Cut
along the fold of the top flap to make two
flaps.

Procedure
1. Make an empty two-column table. In the
left column, list ten objects you would
include in a map of your neighborhood.
2. In the right column, draw each object as it
might appear from above.
3. Make a list of six symbols to represent
objects such as trees, houses, and roads.
4. Draw a map of your neighborhood using
a ruler, grid paper, and colored pencils.

STEP 3 Label the flaps as shown.

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7.f
ELA6: R 2.4

Monitoring Your Comprehension
As you read this chapter, list details about
each type of map. Include information
about how each map looks, what
information it contains, and how it is used.
Visit ca6.msscience.com to:
▶
▶
▶

▶

view
explore Virtual Labs
access content-related Web links
take the Standards Check

45
Horizons Companies


Get Ready to Read
Preview
Learn It!

If you know what to expect
before reading, it will be easier to understand ideas and
relationships presented in the text. Follow these steps to
preview your reading assignments.

1. Look at the title and any illustrations that are included.
2. Read the headings, subheadings, and anything in bold letters.
3. Skim over the passage to see how it is organized. Is it divided into
many parts?
4. Look at the graphics—pictures, maps, or diagrams. Read their titles,
labels, and captions.
5. Set a purpose for your reading. Are you reading to learn something
new? Are you reading to find specific information?

Practice It!

Take some time to
preview this chapter. Skim all the main headings and
subheadings. With a partner, discuss your answers
to these questions.

• Which part of this chapter looks most interesting
to you?
• Are there any words in the headings that are unfamiliar
to you?
• Choose one of the lesson review questions to discuss
with a partner.

Apply It!

Now that you have
skimmed the chapter, write a short paragraph
describing one thing you want to learn from
this chapter.
46


Target Your Reading
Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter.
1

r,
s chapte
i
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e
i
rev
As you p can the illustra
s
o
be sure t s, and graphs.
ble
tions, ta
ns .
e captio
h
t
m
i
k
S

Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.

2

After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.

• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read
A or D

Statement

After You Read
A or D

1 Latitude lines run north to south.
2 Degrees, minutes, and seconds can be used to measure distance on maps.
3 A map legend is a historic map.
4 Longitude lines run north to south.
5 A meridian is a longitude line that forms a semicircle.
6 Contour lines run up and down on hillsides.

Print a worksheet of
this page at
ca6.msscience.com.

7 Contour intervals indicate horizontal distance on
topographic maps.
8 A map scale is used to measure the weight of
heavy maps.
9 Geologic maps use color to indicate the different
ages of rocks.
10 Geologic cross sections can be used to visualize the
slope of geologic formations beneath Earth’s surface.

47


LESSON 1
Science Content
Standards
7.f Read a topographic map and a
geologic map for evidence provided on the
maps and construct and interpret a simple
scale map.

Reading Guide
What You’ll Learn
▼

Define latitude and
longitude.

▼

Explain how latitude and
longitude are used to
determine a location on
Earth.

▼

Demonstrate how map
scales are used.

Why It’s Important
Being able to get from one
place to another or to
determine your exact
location is an important
life skill.

Vocabulary
longitude
latitude
map view
profile view
map legend

Review Vocabulary
pole: either end of an axis
of a sphere, especially of
Earth’s axis (Grade 5)

48 Chapter 1

Reading Maps
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Maps represent large areas of Earth at a size we
can easily see and study.
Real-World Reading Connection Have you ever pretended to find a map to lost treasure? Was the treasure buried somewhere on a deserted island? Look at Figure 1, and
use your imagination to hypothesize why pirates would
bury
and make treasure maps.
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Understanding
Maps
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Maps have been used for many centuries, and there are
countless types of maps. All show where things are on
Earth or where things are in relation to each other. For
example, a street map shows the locations of streets in
relation to other streets, towns, and landmarks. Other
maps may show the position of a weather system.
A single map is like a picture of the location of things at
a given time. However, a series of maps drawn over many
years can show how Earth’s surface and interior change
over time.
Because Earth is large, humans need a way to determine
where they are located on the planet. Imagine telling someone your exact position on the snow-covered continent of
Antarctica. It would be difficult to describe. Ships’ captains
and airplane pilots experience the same problems as they
plot their courses across Earth.

Figure 1

How might pirates have indicated
the locations of their buried treasure?

A Grid System for Plotting Locations
Mapmakers created a system for identifying locations on
Earth. This system uses an imaginary grid of lines that encircles the globe. The intersection, or crossing, of these lines can
be used to pinpoint a location.
Latitude and Longitude Two sets of lines, called latitude and
longitude, make up this imaginary grid. Longitude is the distance in degrees east or west of the prime meridian. The
prime meridian, shown in Figure 2, is a longitude line that
runs from the north pole to the south pole and passes
through Greenwich, England. This line represents zero
degrees longitude. If you were to travel 180° east or west from
the prime meridian, you would reach another longitude line
called the 180° meridian. It lies exactly opposite of the prime
meridian, on the other side of Earth. Separately, each of these
lines is a semicircle. Together, they form a complete circle
that divides Earth into two imaginary halves—the eastern
and western hemispheres. The 180° meridian also forms part
of the International Date Line.
Latitude is the distance in degrees north or south of the
equator. Earth’s equator, shown in Figure 2, represents zero
degrees latitude. It is a latitude line that runs perpendicular
to the longitude lines. The equator also divides Earth into
two halves—the northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude lines form complete circles. The equator forms the largest circle. All remaining latitude lines form smaller and
smaller circles as they approach Earth’s poles.
Degrees Lines of latitude and longitude are labeled in units
of degrees (°). Because Earth is spherical, each set of the lines
of latitude and longitude make up 360°. The north pole is
located at 90° north latitude (90°N) and the south pole is
located at 90° south latitude (90°S). There are an infinite

number of latitude and longitude lines on Earth. However, on
a globe, they are generally labeled every 10°.
Minutes and Seconds Because Earth is so large, it is necessary to make this location system more precise. So, the lines
of latitude and longitude are divided into smaller units. Each
degree of latitude or longitude is divided into 60 minutes ( ' ).
Each minute is divided into 60 seconds ( " ). The degrees,
minutes, and seconds of a line of latitude or longitude can be
used to pinpoint a precise location on a map.

WORD ORIGIN
meridian
meri– prefix; from pre-Latin;
means mid
–dian from pre-Latin dies;
means day

Figure 2

Latitude lines
run east to west, but longitude lines run north to
south.

Observe Why do you think
latitude lines are called parallels, but longitude lines are
called meridians?

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Lesson 1 • Reading Maps

49


Figure 3 The tiny marks on the x-axis and
y-axis are called tic marks. California
occupies land from 32°N to 42°N, and from
114°W to 124°W.
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Which is listed first—latitude or
longitude—when describing a
location?

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Different Views

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Plotting Locations The lines of latitude and
longitude intersect, or cross each other at an
infinite number of places on Earth. These
intersections describe precise locations on
Earth. A location on Earth’s surface is

described by the intersection of the nearest
lines of latitude and longitude. The combination of the latitude number and the longitude number is referred to as a coordinate.
Latitude always is listed first when describing
a location. For example, Sacramento, California is located near 38°N latitude by 121°W
longitude. The coordinates of California’s
State Capitol Building in Sacramento, however, is 38°34'33" north (N) latitude by
121°29'29" west (W) longitude. Practice finding locations by describing the location of the
treasure in Figure 3. Then try to determine
the latitude and longitude of your hometown.

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California Map

Figure 4 The terms map view and plan
view mean the same thing.
Infer Why do you think geographers use the term
map view but architects use the term plan view?

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Most maps are drawn in map view, which
means they are drawn as if you were looking
down on an area from above Earth’s surface.
Map view may also be referred to as plan
view. Lines of latitude and longitude usually
are drawn on a map-view map.
Cross sections are drawn in profile view,
which is a drawing showing a vertical
section of the ground. A profile view is like a
side view of a house. To help you visualize
this concept, a map view and a profile view of
a house are shown in Figure 4. Map views
and profile views will be used to describe
topographic maps and geologic maps in Lesson 2. Also, you will use profile views when
you study models of the inner structures of
volcanoes in Chapter 7.
How is a profile view related to
Earth’s surface?


Map Scales and Legends
Maps have two features to help you read and understand
the map. They are a map legend and and a map scale.

Map Legends
Maps use specific symbols to represent certain features on
Earth’s surface. These symbols allow mapmakers to fit neatly
many details on a map. All maps include a key, called a map
legend, so you can interpret the symbols. A map legend lists
all the symbols used on the map and explains what each symbol means. Figure 5 shows an example of a map legend.

Map Scales
When mapmakers draw a map, they need to decide how big
or small to make the map. They need to decide on the map’s
scale.
The map’s scale tells you the relationship between a distance on the map and the actual distance on the surface
being mapped. The scale can be written as a phrase such as,
“1 centimeter is equal to 1 kilometer.” The scale also can be
written as a ratio, such as 1:100. Because this is a ratio, there
are no units. Verbally, you would say, “Every unit on the map
is equal to 100 units on the ground.” If your unit were 1 cm
on the map, it would be equal to 100 cm on the ground. If
you drew a map of your school on a scale of 1:1, your map
would be as large as your school.
Scale bars also are shown on maps to help determine distance. First, you use a ruler to measure the distance on the
map. Then you compare that distance to the scale bar. There
are many kinds of scale bars. Some examples of scale bars are
shown in Figure 5.

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE
legend
Science Use an explanatory
list of the symbols on a map or
chart. You can use the legend to
interpret the different symbols.
Common Use a story that is
popularly regarded as historical but not verifiable; a popular myth. Everyone loved the
many legends of the western
frontier.

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
ratio
(noun) the relationship in
quantity or size between two
or more things
The ratio of boys to girls
in Ms. Smith’s class was 2:1.

Figure 5

On a map
scale, the map distance
is listed before the actual
distance.
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Lesson 1 • Reading Maps

51


The Usefulness of Maps
Maps are used to help you locate places on Earth. Latitude
and longitude are important for plotting locations on Earth.
Subdividing latitude and longitude into degrees, minutes, and
seconds makes it possible to pinpoint exact locations. In
Chapter 6, you will use latitude and longitude to plot locations
of earthquakes and faults. Map scales are included on maps to
represent the actual surface distance that is being represented.
Map legends often provide a key that explains different
symbols that can be used to interpret maps. Depending on
your purpose, map views or profile views can be used to help
you visualize your surroundings and to find your way around.
As populations grow, the development of maps and what they
show will help humankind plan for the future.

LESSON 1 Review
Standards Check

Summarize
Create your own lesson
summary as you organize
an outline.
1. Scan the lesson. Find and
list the first red main
heading.
2. Review the text after
the heading and list 2–3
details about the heading.

Using Vocabulary
1. Differentiate between lati7.f
tude and longitude.
2. Define map view in your own
7.f
words.

Understanding Main Ideas

3. Find and list each blue
subheading that follows
the red main heading.

3. Explain why coordinates
used to determine locations
1.g minutes, and
include degrees,
7.f

seconds.

4. List 2–3 details, key terms,
and definitions under
each blue subheading.

4. Translate the information in
the figure below into words.
7.f

5. Review additional red
main headings and their
supporting blue subheadings. List 2–3 details about
each.

ELA6: R 2.4

6. Which is the correct way to
write location coordinates?
A. 35° 16' 12" N latitude by
160° 18' 25" W longitude
B. 12" 16' 36° N latitude by
25" 18' 160° W longitude
C. 160° 18' 25" W longitude by
35° 16' 12" N latitude
D. 35° 16' 12" N latitude by
25" 18' 160° W longitude
7.f

Applying Science

7. Critique the usefulness of a
road map that has no scale.

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5. Diagram a map view and a
profile view of a turkey
7.f
sandwich.

8. Outline the changes a map
of a city might show as it grew
from the first settlers until
7.f
today.

Science

nline

For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca6.msscience.com.

52 Chapter 1 • Mapping Earth’s Surface


Can you map a classroom?
Making a simple scale map of your classroom
is easier than mapping your neighborhood. It
also is easy to make exact measurements.

Procedure
1. Make a simple sketch of your classroom.
2. Use a meterstick to measure the:
• length and width of the classroom
• size of the doors and windows
• locations of the desks, tables, shelves,
and other objects

3. Mark your measurements on your sketch.
Refer to the figure above as an example.

4. Calculate your map scale by dividing the actual distance by the
size of your map area. For more help, see Applying Math at the
end of Lesson 2.

5. Use your map scale to calculate the scaled distance for each
measured distance on your sketch. Draw all the objects in their
correct locations according to your scale.

6. Draw a map legend. Refer to the
figure at the right to get an idea about
what your final drawing might look like.

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1. Describe how you made your sketch.
Explain any problems you had when
making your measurements and sketch.

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2. Analyze any errors you made in your
scale calculations. Did you make the same mistake over again?
If you repeat certain math errors, think of a strategy to avoid
each type of error.

Science Content Standards
7.f Read a topographic map and a geologic map for evidence provided on the maps and construct
and interpret a simple scale map.

53


LESSON 2
Science Content
Standards
7.c Construct appropriate graphs from
data and develop qualitative statements
about the relationships between variables.
7.f Read a topographic map and a
geologic map for evidence provided on the
maps and construct and interpret a simple
scale map.

7.h Identify changes in natural
phenomena over time without manipulating
the phenomena (e.g., a tree limb, a grove of
trees, a stream, a hillslope).
Also covers: 7.b

Reading Guide
What You’ll Learn
▼

Understand the function
of topographic maps.

▼

▼

Explain how topographic
maps show changes in
elevation.
Describe geologic maps.

▼

Compare topographic
maps and geologic maps.

Why It’s Important
Knowing the shape of Earth’s
surface and the rocks that

make it up helps in the
planning for future uses of
an area.

Vocabulary
topographic map
contour line
geologic map
geologic formation
contact

Review Vocabulary
geology: the study of Earth

54 Chapter 1
SuperStock/Alamy Images

Topographic and
Geologic Maps
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Specialty maps are used to show specific features such as changes in elevation and geologic characteristics.
Real-World Reading Connection The geology of California is a complex mix of different rock types and many
faults. Geologists and engineers use the information contained in topographic and geologic maps to help them
decide
ˆ} to build homes and businesses. These maps
>ˆ˜ where
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help them determine where it might be unsafe or
undesirable
,i>`ˆ˜} to build.

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Topographic Maps
Topography refers to the shape of a surface, including its
elevation and the position of its features. A special characteristic of topographic maps is that they use lines of equal
elevation to show the shape of Earth’s surface. They show
natural features, such as mountains, valleys, rivers, lakes,
and coastlines. They also show cultural features—those
created by people —such as buildings, roads, and towns.
Topographic maps are used for planning, engineering, military, science, and recreation purposes. Figure 6 shows
some of the tools that are used to collect the field data that
is used to make these maps.

Figure 6 These surveyors are using equipment
to help them calculate land elevation.
Infer What type of map might they be making?


Contour Lines
The lines drawn on maps to join points of equal elevation
are called contour lines. On topographic maps, contour lines
indicate elevation as the distance above sea level. Contour
lines make it possible to measure such things as the height of
a mountain, the depth of the ocean bottom, and the steepness
of a slope. The map view in Figure 7 illustrates that each contour line represents equal elevation above sea level.
The contour interval is the difference in elevation between
contour lines that are next to each other. If the contour interval were 20 feet (6.1 m), then the change in elevation after
five contour lines would be 100 feet (30.5 m). The contour
interval is selected to show the general shape of the terrain

without overcrowding the map with too many lines.
Some contour lines are printed with a darker or wider
line than others. These are called index contours. Generally,
it is only the index contour line that has the elevation
written on it.

WORD ORIGIN
contour
from Latin contornare;
means to go around

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
interval
(noun) a space between
objects, units, points, or states
Each of the four runners ran
200-meter intervals in the
800-meter relay race.

What is the difference between a contour interval
and an index contour?

Topographic Profiles
Sometimes, the map view of an area is not enough. You
can get a better feeling for the topography of Earth’s surface
from a profile view, or cross section. A profile view looks as
though you were standing on Earth’s surface and looking
toward the horizon. Examine the steepness of the slope in
Figure 7 by comparing the map view and profile view.
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Figure 7

Each contour
line shows the same elevation everywhere on
the map.

Explain If you walked along
a contour line, would you be
going uphill, downhill, or neither? Why?

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Lesson 2 • Topographic and Geologic Maps

55


Symbols on Topographic Maps
Interactive Table To organize information about topographic
map symbols, visit Tables at ca6.msscience.com.

Table 1 USGS Topographic Map Symbols

Description

Type

Primary highway

Artificial

Secondary
highway

Artificial

Unimproved road

Artificial

Railroad

Artificial

Buildings

Artificial

Urban area

Artificial

Index contour

Landscape

Intermediate
contour

Landscape

Perennial streams

Landscape

Intermittent
streams

Landscape

Wooded marsh

Landscape

Woods or
brushwood

Landscape

Symbol



What does USGS mean?

Scales
Ratio
English
Metric

Interpreting the colors and symbols on
topographic maps is an important step in
understanding and using topographic
maps. For example, contour lines are
shown in brown on United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps.
Lakes, streams, irrigation ditches, and
other water-related features are shown in
blue. Vegetation is always green. Land grids
and important roads are red. Smaller roads,

trails, railroads, boundaries, and other
cultural features are shown in black. On
some USGS topographic maps, the color
purple is used to indicate updated information or changes that were made to an area
after the map was originally printed.

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USGS topographic maps use a wide variety of symbols to display information. For
example, individual houses may be shown
as small black squares. But, for large buildings, such as the Rose Bowl in Pasadena,
the actual shapes are drawn. Only a tint of
color, such as pink, is used to show large
cities or areas of high population. Table 1
shows part of the long legend that accompanies every USGS topographic map.
Figure 8 shows a portion of a topographic map that you might use if you were
visiting Yosemite National Park. See if you

can find the name of the river that runs
through Yosemite Valley. The north direction is at the top of the page on standard
USGS topographic maps. Also notice that
closely spaced contour lines indicate steep
slopes. Widely spaced lines show areas
where the land is relatively flat. Contour
lines that form a V-shape often indicate the
locations of streams or erosion channels.
Figure 8 Which direction is
El Capitan from the location of
the large red triangle?

56

Chapter 1 • Mapping Earth’s Surface


Visualizing Topography
Figure 8
Planning a hike? A topographic map will show you changes in elevation. With
such a map, you can see at a glance how steep a mountain trail is, as well as its
location relative to rivers, lakes, and roads nearby.

A

B

C

A V-shaped contour lines can indicate the location of a stream or dry

gulch. The bottom of the V points
upstream.
B Where contour lines on a topographic map are close together, elevation is changing rapidly—and the
trail is very steep!

C Widely spaced contour lines indicate a gentle slope—in some places
the terrain might be almost flat!

Contributed by National Geographic

Yosemite Valley as it is viewed from the red triangle in
the topographic map.

Lesson 2 • Topographic and Geologic Maps

57

Chuck Place/Chuck Place Photography


Figure 9 The map key below can
be used to locate geologic formations in the geologic map of the
Grand Canyon to the right.
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Geologic Maps
Geology has an important effect on life around us, from

the likelihood of landslides to the availability of groundwater
in wells. It affects the type of soil on the land and the kinds
of plants that grow there. Geologic maps represent the geology of an area. They can be used for many things, such as
locating valuable minerals or understanding earthquakes.

Geologic Formations
The most striking feature of geologic maps is the display of
colors. This is shown on the geologic map in Figure 9. The
colors make it easier to read the maps. Each color represents a
different geologic formation or rock unit. A geologic formation is a three dimensional body, or volume, of a certain kind
of rock of a given age range. For example, sandstone of one
age might be represented by light yellow, while sandstone of a
different age might be colored bright orange.
The colors on a geologic map are not intended to show
actual rock colors. The colors are used only to separate the
rocks into different formations. Some formations span
millions of years. In these cases, variations of the same color
are generally used. For example, in Figure 9, rocks of
Precambrian age are shades of pinks and orange. A map
key, like the one shown in Figure 9, is always included on
a geologic map.
Figure 9 Use this geologic map with its map key to
locate the oldest rocks in the Grand Canyon.

58 Chapter 1 • Mapping Earth’s Surface


Contacts
All rock formations are formed over, under, or beside other
formations. The place where two rock formations occur next

to each other is called a contact. There are two main types of
contacts—depositional contacts and fault contacts. Depositional contacts occur between rocks that formed when sediments were deposited on other sediments. The rock layers of
the Grand Canyon are a good example. A depositional contact is shown by a thin line on a geologic map.
There are many places in California where rock formations
are broken up and moved. When rock formations that are
next to one another have been moved, the contact is called a
fault contact. Fault contacts are usually shown as thick black
lines on geologic maps. Faults can cut through a single rock
unit. This means the same colored rock unit will be on both
sides of the fault line. Figure 10 shows examples of depositional contacts and fault contacts.
What is the difference between a depositional contact and a fault contact?

Making Geologic Maps
Geologists collect and study many rock samples from
Earth’s surface. They use their data to create geologic maps.
Many rock units are named according to where they are
viewed best, or where they were studied first. For example,
the Briones Sandstone was first described by geologists studying rocks in Briones Valley, California.
The colored areas on geologic maps represent the rock
units that are nearest to the surface. Usually, the soil on
top of rock units is not mapped. So, you might have to dig
through a lot of soil in some places to reach the rocks.
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ai
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s

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t n e

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M o n t e r e y

Figure 10

This figure is a
generalized geologic map of
an area of southern California.

Explain How can you tell the
difference between a depositional
contact and a fault contact on a
B a k e r s f geologic

i e
map?
s p o
i
a
j
V

c
HV

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adX
g
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ai <
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a;Vjai
B a r b a r a

59
C

A

Geology Beneath the Surface

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE
bed

Often, it is necessary to know about the geology below
Earth’s surface. So, how do geologists draw maps of what is
underground? Whenever possible, geologists study outcrops
or cliffs where the rocks are exposed. However, sometimes
they need to drill deep into the ground and retrieve samples
of rock. These samples are shaped like long tubes and are
called cores. The core samples are studied and the data is
recorded for scientific research.

Science Use a unit of material
commonly arranged or deposited in layers. A bed of sand
was laid down before the
workers poured the concrete.
Common Use a piece of furniture on which to sleep. The
children fell asleep shortly after
they went to bed.

Geologic Cross Sections
What does a core sample or an outcrop show? Imagine
yourself at a birthday party where they have just cut the cake.
The cake might have several different layers. Many kinds of
rocks form in broad, flat layers, called beds. The rock beds
stack up just like the layers of a cake. In some parts of California, thick stacks of rock beds remain in their original flat
orientation. In other places, however, forces from within
Earth have bent and tilted the rocks.

A geologic cross section shows how the rocks are stacked
under the surface. It helps geologists interpret what is beneath
the surface of the land. Figure 11 shows an example of a geologic map and a geologic cross section.

Figure 11

A geologic map shows the kinds of
rocks that lie beneath the soil and vegetation.

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60

Chapter 1 • Mapping Earth’s Surface

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HV

H]VaZ

HVc
Yhi
dc
Z

H]VaZ

cZ

Zl
k^
e
BV

hid
cZ

Observe Does the sandstone shown in this map view
represent one bed of sandstone or three sandstone beds
made of different kinds of sandstone?

A^bZhidcZ


Geology and Maps
Topographic maps and geologic maps are essential tools for
geologists. Topographic maps show changes in elevation and
surface features, along with improvements such as roads and
buildings. Geologic maps show the distribution of surface
rock formations. Together these maps provide a complete picture of the geology of a particular area.

LESSON 2 Review
Standards Check

Summarize
Create your own lesson
summary as you write a
newsletter.
1. Write this lesson title,
number, and page numbers at the top of a sheet
of paper.
2. Review the text after
the red main headings
and write one sentence
about each. These will be
the headlines of your
newsletter.
3. Review the text and write
2–3 sentences about each
blue subheading. These
sentences should tell who,
what, when, where, and
why information about
each headline.
4. Illustrate your newsletter
with diagrams of important structures and processes next to each
headline.

ELA6: W 1.2

Using Vocabulary
1. Compare and contrast road
maps and topographic maps.
7.f

2. List the characteristics of a
7.f
geologic formation.

Understanding Main Ideas
3. Relate the spacing of contour
lines to the steepness of an
7.f
area.
4. Explain how topographic
maps show the features of
7.f
Earth’s surface.
5. Describe the difference
between a topographic profile
and a geologic cross section.
7.f
6. Draw and label four contour
lines that illustrate a hill on a
7.f
map.

8. What does the contour interval on a topographic map
represent?
A. distance from a mountain
peak
B. volume of land beneath
the surface
C. distance above or below
sea level

D. lengths of the contour
7.f
lines

Applying Science
9. Explain why the contour
interval on a topographic
map of a mountainous area
7.f
usually is large.
10. Infer why soils are not
included on a geologic map.
7.f

7. Copy and fill in this graphic
organizer to list the features
that are commonly included
7.f
on topographic maps.

Topographic
Map

Science

nline

For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca6.msscience.com.
Lesson 2 • Topographic and Geologic Maps

61


How does a landscape
change over time?
Year 1

Landscape can change over time. Humans build
cities, dams, and farms. In this lab, you will look
at maps of the same area over a period of time
and see how the landscape has changed.

Data Collection
Look at two topographic maps provided by
your teacher. Record the year of the oldest
map as Year 1. Record the year of the most
recent map as Year 2.

Data Analysis
1. List the features you can identify on the
maps. This might include roads, buildings,
streams, wetlands, fences, and so on.

2. Count the number of each type of feature
you can find on each map. Record these
numbers in your data table.

3. Draw line graphs with data points to show
the change in the number of features over

time. Which features increased in number
over the years? Which features decreased?

4. Write descriptive observations of any other
changes you see in the maps, such as stream
paths being changed or features moving as a
result of earthquakes.

Science Content Standards
7.c Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop qualitative statements about the
relationships between variables.
7.f Read a topographic map and a geologic map for evidence provided on the maps and construct
and interpret a simple scale map.
7.h Identify changes in natural phenomena over time without manipulating the phenomena (e.g.,
a tree limb, a grove of trees, a stream, a hillslope).

62

Year 2


Using Ratios

7.f

Ratios show how one quantity is related to another quantity in fraction form. If a map of a park has a key showing that 1 cm on the map
equals 5 km of trails, you can write two different ratios of km of
trails to cm on the map.
• You can write the ratio as a fraction with distance on the map
(in cm) as the numerator and the actual distance of the trails (in

km) as the denominator.

MA6: NS 1.2

distance on the map

1 cm
or ᎏ
ᎏᎏ
5 km
actual distance of trails
• You can also write a fraction the opposite way, as shown below.

*

&%

&*`b

BVe`Zn

actual distance of trails
km
or 5ᎏ
ᎏᎏ
1 cm
distance on the map

&Xb2*`b

Example
Which ratio would you need to find how many kilometers of trails
are equal to 2.5 cm on the map of the park?

What you know:

%

Map Key
1 cm ‫ ؍‬5 km of trails

1 cm on the map ‫ ؍‬5 km of trails in the park

What you need to find: how many kilometers of trails ‫ ؍‬2.5 cm on
the map
? km of trails
1 Write a fraction for what you need to find: ᎏᎏ
2.5 cm on the map

2 Select the ratio to relate kilometers of trails to cenimeters on
km
the map: 5ᎏ
1 cm

3 Multiply to find your answer:
To change from 1 cm to 2.5 cm, multiply by 2.5. To find the number
of kilometers of trails, multiply 5 by 2.5.
5 km
ᎏ
1 cm

؋2.5
→
؋2.5

12.5 cm

Answer: 2.5 cm on the map equals 12.5 km of trails.

Practice Problems
1. Write a ratio for the map key that shows
Map Key
how many cm are equal to how many km
2 cm ‫ ؍‬9 km of trails
of bike trails.
2. How many kilometers of trails would it be for 8 cm on
the map?

Science nline
For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
ca6.msscience.com.

Lesson 2 • Topographic and Geologic Maps

63


Horizons Companies

Model & Invent:

Mapping a Race Route
Materials
topographic map
clear plastic tub
modeling clay
poster board or
cardboard
rulers
scissors

Problem
Your committee must choose a route for a cross-country bike
race. You decide to make three-dimensional models of topographic maps to help choose the race route. The route should go
up and down some steep slopes and over a trail that zigzags along
a dried-up stream valley.

Form a Hypothesis
Do you think a three-dimensional map will be helpful in choosing
a race route? Why or why not? Predict how a three-dimensional
map might be helpful to the committee.

Collect Data and Make Observations

Safety Precautions
WARNING: Always wear
goggles in the lab. Wear
lab coats and gloves to
portect your clothing and

hands when using stains.

Science Content
Standards
7.b Select and use appropriate tools
and technology (including calculators,
computers, balances, spring scales,
microscopes, and binoculars) to perform
tests, collect data, and display data.
7.f Read a topographic map and a
geologic map for evidence provided on the
maps and construct and interpret a simple
scale map.

64

1. Read and complete the lab safety form.
2. Interpret Data Read a topographic map and figure out how
to cut shapes from poster board to stack them into a threedimensional map.
3. Create Can you think of other ways to create a threedimensional contour map? If you want to use a method of
your own, get approval for your idea and materials list
before you begin.
4. Use Models When you have completed the threedimensional map, discuss with your committee what
the best race route would be, and why.


Horizons Companies

Analyze and Conclude
1. Identify the elevation interval between contour lines on your map.

2. Locate the area of highest elevation.
What is the altitude? How high is it on your
map?
3. Describe how you know where water is likely
to flow. Describe these places on the topographic map and on your three-dimensional
map.
4. Locate the areas with the steepest slope.
Explain how you know by looking at the topographic map.
Describe what the steepest slope looks like on your threedimensional map.
5. Communicate the usefulness of the topographic map in
mapping a race route. What factors were easier to assess
with the three-dimensional model? What ideas did you get
for the race route that you might not have had by looking at
the flat topographic map?
6. Error Analysis Critique the procedure and tools you used
to build the three-dimensional map. What would you do
differently next time?

Communicate
3CIENCE

ELA6: W 1.2

Share Your Data How do you think your threedimensional area map could be useful to other
members or groups in your community? Think of
organizations that may be
helped by your threedimensional map. Write a
newspaper article describing
the rationale, tools, materials,
and methods you used to

make your three-dimensional
map. If possible, donate your
map to one of those
organizations.

65